Literary Terms

[Binoy]

Ambiguity
দ্ব্যর্থকতা

Ambiguity is an idea or situation that can be understood in more than one way. This extends from ambiguous sentences (which could mean one thing or another) up to ambiguous storylines and ambiguous arguments. It’s often viewed in a negative light, since we value clarity in writing and ambiguity is the opposite of clarity; however, sometimes ambiguity can be a good thing, especially in poetry and storytelling.

Ambiguity is similar to “vagueness,” except that ambiguity refers to something having multiple possible meanings, while vagueness refers to a general lack of clarity; something vague might not have any clear meanings while something ambiguous might have several possible clear meanings.

Example 1:

I went out in the woods and found a bat.

Was it a little furry winged creature? Or a baseball bat? Because the word “bat” is polysemous, it provides us with a very simple example of semantic ambiguity.

Example 2:

“The word good has many meanings. For example, if a man were to shoot his grandmother at a range of five hundred yards, I should call him a good shot, but not necessarily a good man.” (G.K. Chesterton)

This quote explores the polysemy of the word “good.” If you simply said, “Wow, he’s really good” without any context, a reader couldn’t know which sense of “good” you meant; it would be ambiguous.

[Binoy]

Anachronism
কালবিপর্যয়

Anachronism is a Greek word meaning “backward time.” It’s what happens when an author, deliberately or accidentally, puts historical events, fashions, technology, etc., in the wrong place. This could include simple things like a historical film putting the wrong type of weapon in the hands of the soldiers, or it could be extreme inaccuracies such as having cavemen fight dinosaurs. The point is that the story shows something happening at a time when it would be impossible, or at least extremely unlikely, for that thing to happen.

Example 1:
When you think of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table, you probably imagine a group of knights in plate armor, wielding broadswords and large shields. However, this is an anachronism: full plate armor was not used until at least the 13th century AD, hundreds of years after King Arthur died (around 550 AD). The real King Arthur probably wore chain mail or hardened leather armor, and lived in an earth-and-wood fort instead of a stone castle.

Example 2:
William Shakespeare sometimes used anachronisms deliberately in his plays about the ancient world. He has Cleopatra play billiards, for example, a game that didn’t exist until over 1,000 years after her death. Shakespeare did this because he wanted his plays to be staged as though the events were happening in his own day, much the way we might do with a “modernized” version of old stories. (Imagine, for example, a “Shakespeare” biopic in which the bard is sitting in a café in Brooklyn, typing out Macbeth on his laptop. This would be a deliberate anachronism, since everyone knows Shakespeare never owned a computer.)

Example 3:
Anachronisms can be found even in ancient literature. For example, Virgil’s Aeneid (written around the year 20 BC) begins with the events of the Trojan War. In the aftermath of the war, as Troy burns, the hero flees to Carthage. However, Troy was sacked some time around 1200 BC, and Carthage was not founded until about 200-400 years later.

Example 4:
Several critics have raised concerns about anachronisms in the Bible, for example the presence of camels at the time of Abraham. Current archaeological evidence suggests that camels did not appear in the Holy Land until around 1,000 BC, several centuries after Abraham is believed to have died. To most Christians and Jews, of course, such anachronisms do not matter – the minute details of the Bible are not as important to them as its spiritual and ethical message.

[Binoy]

Anthimeria
পদবিপর্যয়

Anthimeria (also known as antimeria) is the usage of a word in a new grammatical form, most often the usage of a noun as a verb. Anthimeria is often used in everyday conversation as a form of slang.

Example 1:

I could use a good sleep.

Here, the word “sleep,” usually a verb, is used as a noun.

Example 2:

She headed the ball.

In soccer, “heading” the ball is to hit the ball with one’s forehead.

Example 3:

Don’t forget to hashtag that post.

This is a recent form of anthimeria, as “hashtagging” and “hashtag” have only just recently been added to the lexicon with popular social networking sites like Twitter and Instagram.

[Binoy]

Aphorismus
প্রশ্ন মতানৈক্য

Aphorismus is a term in which the speaker questions whether a word is being used correctly to show disagreement. Aphorismus is often written as a rhetorical question such as “How can you call this music?”to show the difference between the usual meaning of a word and how it is  being used. So, the point is to call attention to the qualities of the word, suggesting that how it is being used is not a good example of the word. In the example, the speaker is questioning whether the music heard is a good example of the word “music.”

The word aphorismus originates from the Greek phrase aphorismós meaning “rejection” or “a marking off.” Aphorismus can be used in both everyday conversation and literature. It can be used in literature in all forms including poetry, prose, and speech-writing.

Aphorismus is used to raise questions or disagree about a subject or situation without directly expressing specific concerns. Instead of directly disagreeing, you remind your listener of the definition of a word and point out that the thing you’re disagreeing with does not fit the definition. Aphorismus can be used to insult or question something in a more playful and less direct way than an insult or factual statement such as “This music is horrible.” Whereas insults and facts may be accepted or ignored, aphorismus requires the listeners to consider the definition of the subject, and then ask themselves whether the subject fits. Aphorismus requires some critical thinking from the audience, inviting them to interact with the speaker.
 
Example 1:
A woman is wearing a dress which is ripped, cut short, and white. She hopes to wear it for her wedding. A response using aphorismus would be:

You call that a wedding dress? It’s not appropriate at all!

Because wedding dresses are usually beautiful and elegant, this use of aphorismus challenges whether the dress being used is appropriate.

Example 2:
A man is crying over a coffee stain on his dress shirt. A response to his behavior using aphorismus would be:

How can you call yourself a man? Crying over a tiny stain!

By questioning the man, this example points out that crying over something trivial is not a good example or behavior of a “man.”

Example 3:
One of the most classic examples of aphorismus is found in Shakespeare’s Richard II:

    For you have but mistook me all this while.
    I live with bread like you, feel want,
    taste grief, need friends; subjected thus,
    How can you say to me I am a king?

Here, the king questions his own kingliness. By expressing that he experiences hunger, desire, grief, and loneliness like all people, he levels himself with all people.

Example 4:
For another example of aphorismus, read this excerpt from Truman Capote’s novella Breakfast at Tiffany’s:

    You call yourself a free spirit, a “wild thing,” and you’re terrified somebody’s gonna stick you in a cage. Well baby, you’re already in that cage. You built it yourself. And it’s not bounded in the west by Tulip, Texas, or in the east by Somali-land. It’s wherever you go. Because no matter where you run, you just end up running into yourself.

Here, Fred Varjak challenges Holly Golightly about her own definition of self. The aphorismus targets her claim that she is a free spirit or wild thing. Following the aphorismus, Varjak clarifies that Golightly is not really free, but actually in a self-built cage where she avoids her true self.

[Binoy]

Apologue
উপগল্প; উপদেশমূলক কেচ্ছা

An apologue is a short story or fable which provides a simple moral lesson. Apologues are often told through the use of animal characters with symbolical elements. The word apologue (pronounced ap–uh-lawg, -log) is derived from the Greek phrase apologos, meaning “narrative.” Apologues are prominent stories in children’s bedtime books. Apologues are prominent pieces of literature, as Aesop’s fables are still widely read today. More modern versions with the same ideas are still being written today.

Apologues provide a moral lesson in a concise and enjoyable way which appeals to children. They quickly and convincingly convey a moral lesson. Because of this, apologues are considered rhetorical devices that serve to convince and persuade listeners to view a certain problem as having a specific solution or to view certain actions as immoral or moral, dangerous or safe, and intelligent or unintelligent. Apologues are teaching tools for parents and their young readers.

Example 1:
The Story of the Tortoise and the Hare

The tortoise and hare were in a race, and the hare was winning by a large margin. The tortoise, though, wins when the hare becomes cocky and takes a nap. The moral is “Slow and steady wins the race.”

Example 2:
The Lion and the Mouse

The mouse promised to do something for the lion if he did not eat him. Later, the mouse saved him by chewing through ropes of a trap. The moral is “Little friends may become great friends.”

Example 3:
The Ants and the Grasshopper

The ants work hard to save food for winter while the grasshopper plays. When winter comes, the grasshopper begs the ants for food. The moral is “To work today is to eat tomorrow.”

Example 4:
Aesop’s “The Dog and the Shadow”

    A dog, crossing a bridge over a stream with a piece of flesh in
    his mouth, saw his own shadow in the water and took it for that
    of another dog, with a piece of meat double his own in size.  He
    immediately let go of his own, and fiercely attacked the other
    dog to get his larger piece from him.  He thus lost both:  that
    which he grasped at in the water, because it was a shadow; and
    his own, because the stream swept it away.

The moral was “Grasp at the shadow and lose the substance.”

Example 5:
George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”

    I trust that every animal here appreciates the sacrifice that Comrade Napoleon has made in taking this extra labour upon himself. Do not imagine, comrades, that leadership is a pleasure! On the contrary, it is a deep and heavy responsibility. No one believes more firmly than Comrade Napoleon that all animals are equal. He would be only too happy to let you make your decisions for yourselves. But sometimes you might make the wrong decisions, comrades, and then where should we be?

In Animal Farm, the story of pigs serves as a moral warning about real-life issues in the Russian Revolution of 1917 with Stalin’s dictatorship.

[Binoy]

Aposiopesis
অসমাপ্ত বাক্যবিধি

Aposiopesis  is when a sentence is purposefully left incomplete or cut off. It’s caused by an inability or unwillingness to continue speaking. This allows the ending to be filled in by the listener’s imagination. In order to show aposiopesis in a sentence, one may use the em dash (–) or ellipsis (…). Aposiopesis may be used to express speechlessness caused by great emotion or passion, such as rage, frustration, or fear. It may also be used to avoid speaking of certain topics or to direct an audience’s attention to a new subject. Aposiopesis is used in literature for dramatic effects. It can show that a character is overwhelmed with emotion. Or, it can allow the reader to fill in horrors or threats with their own imaginations. When characters pause due to strong emotion or searching for words, they appear more realistic and believable.The word aposiopesis is derived from the Greek phrase aposiōpaein, meaning “to become totally silent.”

Example 1
Aposiopesis type: audience-respecting

This type of aposiopesis does not to include details or thoughts which may be offensive or unpleasant to readers or listeners. For example, while discussing a court case in front of a jury, a lawyer may state:

After the suspect… Well, you’ve read the court documents. After the heinous crime was completed, the suspect fled the scene.

Example 2
Aposiopesis type: surprising

This type of aposiopesis does not give information that the audience wants or expects to receive. This gains the audience’s interest in the information that will later be revealed. For example, it is often used in newscasts:

On tonight’s newscast, we will begin to discover what happens when two animals become unlikely friends… More on this story on The Evening News at 8.

Example 3
Aposiopesis type: emotional

Similar to emphatic aposiopesis, emotive aposiopesis does not finish a sentence due to an emotional outburst. This type of aposiopesis does not finish an idea in order to express that it is beyond description. Imagine an angry man who is so angry he can’t even think of what he wants to do to express that anger:

I’m so angry, I could– I could–!

Example 4
Aposiopesis type: transition

Used mostly in speech-making, the transition aposiopesis ( or transitio-aposiopesis ) is used to make a transition from one subject to another. By removing the conclusion from one idea, the speaker immediately gains the listeners’ interest in the next section of the speech:

And, in conclusion… Well, enough of that. Let’s move on to the next point.

Example 5
An example of this may be found in Shakespeare’s King Lear. Lear is so upset he cannot think of proper punishment for his misbehaving daughters:

     I will have revenges on you both
    That all the world shall– I will do such things–
    What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be
    The terrors of the earth!

The use of aposiopesis here serves to show that Lear is so angry, he cannot speak clearly or think of specific threats.

Example 6
Similarly, Mark Twain’s Aunt Polly is overcome with emotion but is unable to complete her thought:

    She looked perplexed for a moment, and then said, not fiercely, but still loud enough for the furniture to hear:
    “‘Well, I lay if I get hold of you I’ll–‘
    She did not finish, for by this time she was bending down and punching under the bed with the broom.

Aposiopesis has a wide range of uses, but is most common in literature. It is a way of reflecting that a character has become overwhelmed with emotion or passion.

[Binoy]

Archaism
পুরনো অপ্রচলিত শব্দ

An archaism is an old word or expression that is no longer used with its original meaning or is only used in specific studies or areas. The word archaism is derived from the Greek word archaïkós meaning “ancient.” Archaisms exist, naturally, because language is always changing through the years unless artificially held back. Shakespeare’s English–Elizabethan English—evolved into the many dialects of modern English.  Archaisms are most important because they remain in use in certain limited fields of activity—especially law, government, and religion—the most conservative and traditional areas of activity in our world.  But archaisms can also be used by anyone anytime in speech or writing, to create an atmosphere of antiquity, and also, to give one’s language a feeling of official-ness, royalty, or religious authority.

Example 1
This above all: to thine own self be true.

This often quoted line from Shakespeare’s Hamlet has an archaism—thine—as well as archaic sentence structure. The modern translation would be: This above all: be true to yourself.

Example 2
Do you bite your thumb at us, sir?

A modern response to this question would be, “Do I what?” This line is also from Shakespeare. The expression “to bite one’s thumb” at someone once meant to bite and flick one’s thumb towards someone, which was an offensive and insulting gesture.

Example 3
The language of lawyers and laws is filled with archaisms such as heretofore, hereunto, thereof, etc.

Often used in Shakespearean studies, this phrase may be translated to: The lady solemnly declares too much, I think.

This last example calls attention to the fact that although archaisms are not used much anymore, they are used.  If a word or phrase is not used at all anymore, in any context, it is not an archaism; it is obsolete.

[Binoy]

Bathos
ভাবগম্ভীর থেকে হাস্যকর
an abrupt turn from the serious and poetic to the regular and silly
Bathos, when unintentional, shows how easily serious scenes and subjects can be undermined by poor writing as the serious tone turns into a ridiculous and hilarious tone. When intentional, it shows just how funny it is when such serious scenes are abruptly interrupted by unexpected and silly subjects or circumstances. Typically, serious moments are separated from comedic moments. When they are combined through bathos, the sudden change in tone surprises the audience with the unexpected comedic touch.

Example 1
Her hair was finely curled, her cheeks were lined with rouge, and her dress was a flowing green and blue which made her look rather like a tired, old peacock.

The previous sentence is an example of bathos: Rather than likening the woman to a beautiful bird, she is compared, surprisingly, to a tired, old peacock.

Example 2
He spent his final hour of life doing what he loved most: arguing with his wife.

Whereas the description of someone’s final hours is usually respectful and solemn, this one is surprisingly and unexpected humorous due to bathos.

Example 3
After training for the entire year and successfully running his first marathon, Ben was desperate, nearly insane, for a saturated fat-filled chocolate bar.

Expected needs would include water and food, but the urge for junk food is surprising in a star athlete.

Example 4
She urged her friend to reconsider her decision, as she could be making a huge mistake wearing a green, short dress rather than a long, red dress.

Serious, life-changing decisions usually do not concern wardrobe changes, but a sentence using bathos does.

Example 5
Alexander Pope, critic who coined the term bathos, uses the device in his poem The Rape of the Lock:

    Not louder Shrieks to pitying Heav’n are cast,
    When Husbands or when Lap-dogs breath their last.

Hilariously, Pope places lap-dogs and husbands on the same level for the sadness they cause when they die.

[Binoy]

Burlesque
রঙ্গব্যঙ্গ

Burlesque is a style in literature and drama that mocks or imitates a subject by representing it in an ironic or ludicrous way; resulting in comedy. It is a form of the literary genre, satire. The term “burlesque” originates from the Italian burla and later burlesco, meaning ridicule, mockery, or joke. Correspondingly, burlesque creates humor by ridiculing or mimicking serious works, genres, subjects, and/or authors in one of two ways: either by presenting significant subjects in an absurd or crude way, or by presenting insignificant subjects in a sophisticated way. As a literary and dramatic device, the term is often used interchangeably with parody, though a parody is actually type of burlesque.

Burlesque literature is much more than mere comedy and entertainment. It has been a major literary and dramatic technique for social activism and commentary for thousands of years; using humor to attract attention to serious and unresolved issues in society. Nowadays, the main purpose of burlesque literature and drama is generally entertainment and comedy, but it has historically been an important way of using humor to critique social issues.

Example 1
As mentioned above, burlesque works mimic the styles and subjects of other works in a humorous way. Take the classic cute love poem:

Roses are red,
Violets are blue,
Sugar is sweet,
And so are you!

A burlesque version of the poem, specifically a parody, would be:

Roses prick your fingers,
Violets make you sneeze,
Sugar fills your veins with fat,
It’s best you stick to peas!

First, the poem above mimics the style of the first poem in that it follows the same ABCB rhyme scheme. Second, it mimics the subject of the first poem by using the same words—roses, violets, sugar, and you. However, the second poem is funny because it highlights the negative elements of these things rather than the positive. Thus, by changing these words to funny alternatives, while keeping the same style, the second poem mocks the traditional love poem, making it a burlesque poem.

Example 2
Burlesque was made most popular during the Victorian era of literature. Jane Austen’s Northanger Abbey is a parody of gothic fiction, which was a very popular genre of literature for young Victorian women. The story follows Catherine Morland, a young woman with a vivid imagination, which is the author suggests is “caused” by her love of gothic novels. Austen is mocking the popular Victorian mentality that literature could cause fantastic, improper, and unrealistic ideas as a result of reading fiction. Northanger Abbey follows the style of gothic novel because Catherine experiences similar feelings and situations that a gothic heroine would face—fear, mystery, curiousity, danger—however it is a parody because nothing scary or mysterious ever actually happens to Catherine, she just has an active imagination. See the selection below:

    Catherine’s blood ran cold with the horrid suggestions which naturally sprang from these words. Could it be possible? – Could Henry’s father? – And yet how many were the examples to justify even the blackest suspicions!

Here, the language is gothic in style—blood ran cold, horrid, blackest suspicions. However, after this, we learn that Catherine is just imagining nonsense—nothing out of the ordinary ever occurs throughout the novel. Catherine longs for mystery and adventure like her novels provide, so she imagines countless things to be evidence of conspiracy and horror, realizing after each time how silly she was being.

Example 3
Jonathan Swift is one of literature’s greatest satirists, and his essay A Modest Proposal is an excellent example of a burlesque work that critiques serious social issues, specifically those of 18th century Irish society, such as poverty and the way the rich treat and view the poor. In his essay he suggests several solutions to these problems—

    I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least objection.

    I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricasie, or a ragoust.

In this passage, Swift suggests that children make an excellent food. He continues his essay by defending the reasons why it is an excellent solution to poverty, as many poor people have extra children that they could use to feed mouths, rather than as mouths to feed. Obviously, these ideas are over-the-top and outrageous; which is precisely the point of the essay. It mocks a very serious issue; which highlights its importance and begs for change in society.

[Binoy]

Catharsis
আবেগ নির্গম

Catharsis,  meaning “cleansing” in Greek, refers to a literary theory first developed by the philosopher Aristotle, who believed that cleansing our emotions was the purpose of a good story, especially a tragedy. Catharsis applies to any form of art or media that makes us feel strong negative emotions, but that we are nonetheless drawn to – we may seek out art that creates these emotions because the experience purges the emotions from our system. We can feel something intense, then walk out of the theater feeling better afterwards. Catharsis is roughly synonymous with the idea of “blowing off steam.”

Aristotle was perhaps the greatest philosopher of the ancient world, and he was curious about everything – biology, physics, politics, ethics, literature, etc. This powerful thinker raised many insightful questions and tried to answer them through philosophy. One question that particularly vexed Aristotle was: why do we enjoy watching or reading tragedies? Why do we enjoy stories that make us sad?

It’s important to remember that ancient Greek culture had real tragedies, which modern culture generally doesn’t. Hollywood seems to be addicted to happy endings, which means almost none of our popular stories are really “tragic” in the true sense. After all, a real tragedy is one in which the hero is ultimately destroyed and there is no happy ending to be found. So when Aristotle pondered the question of tragedy, he was wondering why so many people in his society preferred stories that had unhappy endings.

His theory, as we’ve seen, was that such stories are cathartic. We feel such tremendous sympathy for the hero, such rage at the villain, such sorrow at the tragic ending, that we can then walk out of the theater and back into our own lives with less “baggage,” – less pent-up emotion threatening to boil over.

Example 1
Romeo and Juliet is a great example of a tragedy, and its popularity might be explained by the idea of catharsis. In the end, the young lovers end up dead because they made the mistake of following their childish passions instead of being rational and patient. (It was intended as a cautionary tale, not a celebration of romantic love!) As an audience, we feel sympathy and pity for Romeo and Juliet, but we may also feel some relief at the end due to the effects of catharsis.

Example 2
In Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe takes the structure of a classical tragedy and applies it to African culture. He tells the story of a powerful village leader whose arrogance drives away his supporters. He is ultimately brought so low that he kills himself. Catharsis, along with Achebe’s skill as a writer, may help to explain why this story is so popular.

[Binoy]

Cliffhanger
অসমাপ্ত সমাপ্তি

A cliffhanger is when a story or plotline ends suddenly or a large plot twist occurs and is left unresolved. It is a device that is used to cause suspense, but most importantly, it leaves unanswered questions that make the reader or viewer want to come back to learn what will happen. The phrase comes from the idea of “hanging off a cliff”—whatever happens will determine the character’s future and the story’s plot, leaving audiences “on the edge” of knowing. Cliffhangers are a particularly popular and widely used device in television, whose success relies heavily on audiences returning to watch week after week with episodes that are “to be continued.”

[Binoy]

Comic Relief
চকিত হাস্যরস

Even in an intense, dramatic movie, you can find moments of humor. Maybe a character is facing an impossible epic quest, but makes witty comments to lighten the mood. Or maybe two characters are suffering through a difficult divorce, but one of them cracks a joke to cut the tension. It’s just like in real life – we often make jokes to ease the burden of difficult circumstances. In storytelling, this is called comic relief.

It’s important to remember the relief part of comic relief. In a funny movie, for example, there’s no need for comic relief – there’s just regular comedy. Comic relief is when the comedy takes place in a story that’s dramatic, tragic, or serious overall, not comedies.

[Binoy]

Diacope
বাগাবর্ত

Diacope is when a writer repeats a word or phrase with one or more words in between. A common and persistent example of diacope is Hamlet’s:

    To be, or not to be!

Here, the phrase “to be” is repeated, but separated by the phrase “or not.” The phrase diacope is derived from the Greek word diakopē, meaning “to cut into two.”

[Binoy]

Dramatic irony
নাটকীয় বক্রাঘাত

Irony is when you get the opposite of what you expect, especially if the result is humorous or striking in some way. Dramatic irony, however, is slightly different: it’s when the audience knows something the characters don’t — so the characters might get an unexpected outcome, but for the audience it’s not unexpected at all.

[Binoy]

Elegy
শোকগাথা

An elegy (pronounced ELL-eh-jee) is a poem of mourning. Written in a somber style, it reflects seriously on death and on the person who has passed. Elegies are written for a specific person, usually someone the author knew well, although sometimes people write elegies for long-dead heroes. The emotional effect is usually greatest, however, when the elegy is written from a personal experience of loss.