Messages

46

Pharmacy / Honey as an antibiotic

« on: November 03, 2014, 10:29:36 AM »

Honey is one of the natural wonders of the world. From the nectar which bees harvest from flowers, they produce honey with miraculous food and medicinal values for human beings. Any other non-solid foods that are kept at room temperature for a few nights will go bad but honey can be stored for years. The soothing effect of honey coupled with its antibiotic quality make it suitable for treating wounds and burns. When put on a wound honey absorbs the impurities, kills germs and soothes the wound. Honey also improves appetite and digestion, and relievesconstipation. It can be used in treating coughs and colds. Other diseases and conditions treated with honey include anaemia, measles, diarrhoea and vomiting. It also contains small amounts of vitamins and minerals. In infants and small children, honey is used for treating nutritional deficiencies. Because of its soothing effects, honey calms infants.

Despite the ample medicinal values of honey, it is more frequently used as food than as medicine. It is a very good source of energy. Nearly the entire solid part of honey is made up of sugars that are utilised by the body to provide energy. The uniqueness of honey sugars is that most of them are ready to be taken up into the body once swallowed. Most other sugars first have to be digested before they can be absorbed and utilised in the body. Thus honey sugars, like glucose, provide a quick source of energy for exhausted people. The other substances that bees mould in the hive, such as beeswax and propolis, boost the medicinal and food value of honey. Beeswax contains plenty of vitamin A. Propolis is made up of vitamins, minerals and germ-killing substances. It contains an agent
that dwarfs tuberculosis germs and helps to relieve tuberculosis symptoms. It is one third as active as streptomycin, one of the antibiotics used for treating tuberculosis. Honey absorbs water and begins to ferment as soon as it gets into contact with water, thereby losing its value. It also losesvalue when heated, therefore honey should never be boiled

47

Pharmacy / Quality Assurance of Herbal Medicine

« on: November 01, 2014, 10:55:05 AM »

Quality Assurance of Herbal Medicine
In parliamentary law to produce herbal medicine, give more emphasis on determining the quality of natural herbs and herbs, supplements to ensure the supply of only high quality product in the marketplace. Formerly a product has been created, it undergoes a series of exams to insure consistency, character and effectiveness. The completed product is audited by inspector for bulk weight, fluid volume, plate count, bottle sealing and legible lot number, sample is then passed to the Quality assurance labs, so that scientists can complete testing according to finished product specification.

Later on all the procedures have been discharged and the merchandise has blown over the inspection, Quality Assurance will release the merchandise. The batch record and a sample of the finished product are kept back for future extension. If a client has a query about a product Quality Assurance can refer to the retention sample of the set in question.

The following list records a few of the trials we take in our premises as well as in association with the other labs:-
Ash Testing - is only a quantity of the mineral content. The higher the ash count, the more minerals are present in the flour. To count on the ash count, the miller puts a sample into a container (called an ash muffle), and incinerates it in a very hot oven to fire off all the organic cloth, until all that persists is the mineral residue. This residue (or ash) is then considered in relation to the original sample weight to calculate the ash count for that sample. Ash testing originated is a means of assessing the tone of the milling operation.

Finished Product Auditing – Once a product has been made, each set is statistically sampled and finally the product is audited by Quality assurance inspectors for bulk weight, Liquid volume bottle count, Bottle seals and legible lot number samples are then passed on to the QA labs so that scientists can complete testing according to finished product specifications.

Microbiological Testing - Quality and purity of their herbs and natural herbs, supplements by utilizing an official document called a bactometer. It observes the growth of an organism by the change of electronic signal passed through the testing.

E. Coli Testing – The risk of the E. Coli bacteria are well spotted. In large enough amounts, these bacteria can be calamitous. A mother Herbs test sometimes raw material for the presence of E. coli using specially designed E. Color plate that controls an indicator that turn the bacteria down. This allows for visual identification of the bacteria and of course rejection of that particular portion of sensitive material in necessary.

Salmonella Testing –Test for Salmonella Sp. In herb raw material and product using what is called a 1-2 test. This examination lets us to prevail what is called result, much more quickly than standard culture method.

Mold And Yeast Testing – Regularly perform yeast and mold count using the bactometer. Its special module contains the element a mold or yeast would need to affirm life if it were present when the organism matures, it is observed on the bactometer.

High Performance Liquid Chromatography – This extremely sensitive computerized tool allows to analyze the constituent in the admixture. Sometimes use HPLC to examine the purity and potency of raw materials, mostly in economically feasible raw materials.

Gas Chromatography (GC) -By using GC can separate complete mixture of compound into individual part. A sample of a mixture is laid in the GC machine where it is heated and become a gas. Every bit the gas travels through a metro in the machine the individual element in the mixture separate and bind a special coating in the subway. These separated elements enter a detection unit called a mass spectrometer.

48

Public Health / Causes of liver damage

« on: October 30, 2014, 10:32:15 AM »

Here are a couplet of the primary causes of liver damage   

1) Going to go to sleep too late at dark and wake up late in the dawning.

2) In the morning to urinate and cannot drink enough water.

3) Additional intake.

4) In the morning to make breakfast.

5) Excessive to take the drugs.

6) Preservatives, food colors and food to sweets using artificial sweetener eat more food.

7) Unhealthy cooking oil.

8 ) Fry-burns when frying foods and using the extra oil.

9) Overly damaging anything. Raw food eating too much stress on the liver.

10) enjoying alcohol.

49

Public Health / Ways to Control Diabetes

« on: October 30, 2014, 10:23:30 AM »

Diabetes is very little precedent for the elimination of the disease. The main remedy is to control the disease. There are many ways to keep diabetes under control. Discussed here are the ways to control diabetes:

1) When suffering from diabetes, according to the doctor for a health check periodically undergo.

Ii) Whose medication is to eat or take insulin, should they make it to the doctor to determine the level and amount.

3) Is essential to know yourself very well about the types of diabetes. What do you and exclusionary, Learn about. Take the doctor advice.

4) There is no alternative to proper diet. Create a list of foods to suit your type of diabetes, or ask your doctor to create a diet. That comply strictly.

5) Keep the diabetes under control at all times to monitor blood glucose levels regularly yourself.

6) A regular half hour walk from the mandatory one hour. Three-five days a week with yoga and more to keep you fresh and dapper empty exercise. Athletics should be according to age. Beware of overwork.

50

Nutrition and Food Engineering / Cashew nut nutrition facts

« on: October 23, 2014, 03:04:51 PM »

Delicately sweet yet crunchy and delicious cashew nut is packed with energy, antioxidants, minerals and vitamins that are essential for robust health. Cashew, or “caju” in Portuguese, is one of the popular ingredients in sweet as well savory dishes worldwide.

Botanically, cashew is an average size tropical evergreen tree belonging in the Anacardiaceae family, in the genus: Anacardium. Scientific name: Anacardium occidentale.

The cashew tree is native to Brazil’s Amazon rain forest. It spread all over the world by Portuguese explorers and today, it is cultivated commercially in Brazil, Vietnam, India and in many African countries.

Cashew tree bears numerous, edible, pear shaped false fruits or “accessory fruits'” called "cashew apples." Cashew nut which actually is a “true-fruit”, firmly attaching to bottom end of cashew-apple, appearing like a clapper in the bell. Botanically, this tiny, bean shaped, grey “true fruit” is a drupe, featuring hard outer shell enclosing a single edible kernel known commercially as “cashew nut.”

Its exterior shell composes a phenolic resin, urushiol, which is a potent caustic skin irritant toxin. In the processing units, this outer shell is roasted in order to destroy urushiol resin, and only then its edible cashew kernel is extracted.

Cashew nut measures about an inch in length, 1/2 inches in diameter, and kidney or bean shape, with smooth curvy pointed tip. Each nut splits into two equal halves as in legumes. Cashews featurec ream white color with the firm yet delicate texture and smooth surface.

Health benefits of Cashew nuts

Cashews are high in calories. 100 g of nuts provide 553 calories. They are packed with soluble dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals and numerous health-promoting phyto-chemicals that help protect us from diseases and cancers.

They are rich in “heart-friendly” monounsaturated-fatty acids like oleic, and palmitoleic acids. These essential fatty acids help lower harmful LDL-cholesterol while increasing good HDL cholesterol. Research studies suggest that Mediterranean diet, which is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids help to prevent coronary artery disease and strokes by favoring healthy blood lipid profile.

Cashew nuts are abundant source of essential minerals. Minerals, especially manganese, potassium, copper, iron, magnesium, zinc, and selenium are concentrated in these nuts. A handful of cashew nuts a day in the diet would provide enough of these minerals and may help prevent deficiency diseases. Selenium is an important micronutrient, which functions as a co-factor for antioxidant enzymes such as Glutathione peroxidases, one of the most powerful antioxidants in the body. Copper is a cofactor for many vital enzymes, including cytochrome c-oxidase and superoxide dismutase (other minerals function as co-factors for this enzyme are manganese and zinc). Zinc is a co-factor for many enzymes that regulate growth and development, gonadal function, digestion, and DNA (nucleic acid) synthesis.

Cashews are also good in many essential vitamins such as pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), pyridoxine (vitamin B-6), riboflavin, and thiamin (vitamin B-1). 100 g nuts provide 0.147 mg or 32% of daily-recommended levels of pyridoxine. Pyridoxine reduces the risk of homocystinuria, and sideroblastic anemia. Niacin helps prevent "pellagra" or dermatitis. Additionally, these vitamins are essential for metabolism of protein, fat, and carbohydrates at the cellular level.

Further, the nuts are also carry a small amount of zea-xanthin, an important pigment flavonoid antioxidant, which selectively absorbed into the retinal macula lutea in the eyes. It is thought to provide antioxidant and protective UV ray filtering functions and helps prevent age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) in the elderly.

51

Pharmacy / Poisonous plant in Bangladesh

« on: July 20, 2014, 11:26:11 AM »

Poisonous Plant  plant, plant product or its derivatives which produce deleterious effects on human and other animals’ body or cause their death when taken in relatively smaller quantities. Poisonous plants, however, do not include those edible plants which are toxic in the fresh state, but lose their toxicity on being dried or cooked.

Poisonous plants have been the subject of practical lore since ancient times. Their systematic study, in terms of modern science, is often considered to have begun during the 16th century, when the Swiss physician and alchemist Paracelsus first studied the chemical nature of poisons. However, Indigenous Systems of Medicine in this subcontinent had studied and recorded detail accounts of poisonous plants way back in 1500 BC.

Some poisonous plant in Bangladesh

   
1. Local name: Kunch
Scientific name: Abrus precatorius
Poisonous parts :Seeds, roots
Poisonous effects: Abortifacient, emetic, cathartic, cattle poison.

2. Local name: Ata
Scientific name: Annona squamosa
Poisonous parts :Roots, seeds
Poisonous effects: Roots are drastic purgative, seeds are strong eye irritant.

3.Local name: Shialkanta
Scientific name: Argemone mexicana
Poisonous parts :Seeds, latex
Poisonous effects: Seeds cause severe dropsy, vomiting and diarrhoea; latex is irritant. 

4.Local name: Hijal
Scientific name: Barringtonia acutangula
Poisonous parts :Fruits
Poisonous effects: Fruit causes severe vomiting

5.Local name: Akanda
Scientific name: Calotropis gigantea
Poisonous parts :Latex, leaves
Poisonous effects: Latex is violent purgative, abortifacient, infanticide, leaves are homicidal poison.

6.Local name: Bhanga
Scientific name: Canabis sativa
Poisonous parts :Latex, leaf, flower
Poisonous effects: Loose motion

7.Local name: Papaya
Scientific name: Carica papaya
Poisonous parts :Latex of young fruit
Poisonous effects: Latex is intestinal irritant, induces abortion.

8.Local name: Makal
Scientific name: Citrullus colocynthis
Poisonous parts :Fruits
Poisonous effects: Powerful hydragogue and cathartic.

9.Local name: Swarnalata
Scientific name: Cuscuta reflexa
Poisonous parts :Whole plant
Poisonous effects: Antifertility, decoction causes nausea, vomiting and abortion.

10.Local name: Dhutra
Scientific name: Datura innoxia
Poisonous parts :Seeds
Poisonous effects: Dryness of mouth, delirium, fever, convulsion

11.Local name: Dundul
Scientific name: Luffa cylindrica
Poisonous parts : Fruits
Poisonous effects: Fruit juice of wild plant, causes severe purgation.

12.Local name: Ghora Neem
Scientific name: Melia sempervirens
Poisonous parts : Fruits
Poisonous effects: Fruits produce nausea-spasm and choleric symptoms.

13.Local name: Rakta Karobi
Scientific name: Nerium indicum
Poisonous parts : All parts
Poisonous effects: Cause death on ingestion; roots cause abortion on local application.

14.Local name: Chita
Scientific name: Plumbago zeylanica
Poisonous parts : Whole plant
Poisonous effects: Extract; causes paralysis

15.Local name: Palik
Scientific name: Ranunculus scleratus 
Poisonous parts : Whole plant
Poisonous effects: Highly acrid, causes violent irritation; paralysis and convulsion, slows respiration, depresses heart's action.

16.Local name: Kuchila
Scientific name: Strychnos nuxvomica
Poisonous parts : Seed
Poisonous effects: Respiratory failure, nausea, muscle twitching.

17.Local name: Tagor
Scientific name: Tabernaemontana divaricata
Poisonous parts :Fruits, seeds
Poisonous effects: Fruits are deadly poisonous; seeds are narcotic, poisonous, produce delirium.

18.Local name: Helde Karobi Antamul
Scientific name: Thevetia peruviana
Poisonous parts :Bark, seeds, latexLeaves, roots
Poisonous effects: Cause serious depression, paralysis and death. Plant juice causes vomiting, unconsciousness, death.
 
A particular plant acquires the poisonous property when it accumulates some special types of chemical substances like alkaloids, glycosides, toxalbumins and the like in substantial quantities in its cells. However, when used in regulated doses, most of these apparently poisonous plants may also produce beneficial therapeutic effects due to the presence of the same chemical substances. Thus it is very difficult to draw a distinct boundary between the poisonous and the medicinal plants as most of these plants qualify for both the categories for the above reasons. Some of them are, of course, drastically poisonous, ie, they cause death immediately after administration. They are often used for suicidal and homicidal purposes. Many of them are also used for criminal abortions and for other similar purposes.

An estimated 5,000 species of phanerogamous plants grow in Bangladesh, about 500 of which are regarded as medicinal plants as they possess therapeutic properties. Some of these medicinal plants (about 50) are also classified as poisonous plants as they produce toxic effects on the animal system, if they are not used carefully or in regulated amount. A number of such poisonous plants of Bangladesh are listed in the table.

However, almost all of these plants are also regarded as medicinal plants as they possess medicinal properties and therapeutic values. Indiscriminate and irresponsible use of any medicinal plant may become dangerous since all medicinal plants possess some degree of toxicity.  [Abdul Ghani and Mostafa Kamal Pasha]

52

Pharmacy / Herbal Skin Creams Preparation

« on: May 20, 2014, 12:38:24 PM »

All skin creams are based on a combination of melted waxes, oils, and scented waters, which must all be at a similar temperature. If it does not contain water, it is not technically a cream.
Herbal skin creams blend well onto the skin and have the advantage of being cooling and soothing. At the same time an herbal cream allows the skin to breathe and sweat naturally. Properly made herbal skin creams can last up to one year. To extend shelf life, they can be refrigerated.
Small quantities of such extra ingredients as tinctures, powders, and essential oils can be added to a cream before or after it is put into jars. Adding an essential oil, as 1 ml tea tree oil to 100 ml of cream, counters mold growth and lengthens shelf-life.
Spooning creams into jars is an acquired skill. It is best to start with a small spoon and to use a knife around the inside edge to remove air pockets. Be sure to use a wide mouth jar as some creams will be too hard to remove afterwards. If this happens, reheat gently.
Always label and date the preparations. Keeping a record of each recipe and its success or failure is a good idea as well.
Since perishable ingredients are involved, refrigerate creams and use within a few weeks. To prevent the addition of bacteria during use, be sure the hands are clean before dipping into the cream.

Herbs Commonly Used in Creams
•   Aloe Vera sap is soothing and healing.
•   Avocado is high in oils and nutrients, making an excellent skin food.
•   Borage is good for dry, sensitive skin.
•   Calendula is healing, especially for rough or damaged skin.
•   Chamomile is gentle and soothing and softens, as well as whitens, skin.
•   Comfrey is healing and soothing, containing allantoin, a protein which speeds up cellular renewal.
•   Cucumber is a good cleansing agent and toner, as well as being soothing and healing.
•   Dandelion contains a rich emollient useful in cleansing creams for dry, mature, and sallow skin.
•   Elderflower is a good overall tonic for all skin types. It also softens, smooths wrinkles, fades freckles, and soothes sunburn.
•   Fennel is cleansing and soothing. Crushed seeds can be added to face packs.
•   Houseleek is healing, softening, and soothing.
•   Ivy relieves sunburn and helps to disperse trapped fluids and toxins in the fight against cellulite.
•   Lady’s Mantle is healing and soothing for sensitive or rough hands, and makes a good astringent for large pores.
•   Lavender is healing and a gentle cleanser and tonic for all skin types.
•   Lemon is an astringent that restores the skin’s natural acid balance.
•   Linden blossoms soothe and soften and are good for deep cleansing.
•   Marshmallow is a healing softener for dry, chapped hands and for sunburn.
•   Nettle is a deep cleanser, particularly good for oily skin.
•   Orange Flower is an excellent skin tonic, helping to restore the skin’s acid balance. It is also good for dry skin and broken capillaries and stimulates cell replacement.
•   Parsley is a good conditioner for dry, sensitive, and troubled skin.
•   Peppermint is a stimulating astringent that clears the complexion.
•   Rose has a soothing, gentle, cleansing action that refines and softens the skin.
•   Rosemary is an invigorating tonic and antiseptic which boosts circulation and deep skin cleansing.
•   Sage is a cleansing, stimulating astringent which tightens large pores.
•   Thyme is a gentle stimulating and antiseptic cleanser.
•   Violet is a gentle, soothing astringent.
•   Watercress, as an expressed juice, can help clear blemishes.
•   Witch Hazel is soothing and astringent. Distilled witch hazel contains 15% alcohol.
•   Yarrow is a healing and cleansing astringent.

Cream Preparation
•   30 g dried herb (75 g fresh)
•   150 g emulsifying wax
•   2 ounces apricot oil (or favorite carrier oil)
•   75 g vegetable glycerin
•   80 ml water
•   10 drops lavender or favorite essential oil- Essential oil adds scent, but also acts as a natural preservative

Melt the emulsifying wax in a glass bowl set in a pan of boiling water or use a double boiler. Add glycerin, water, and the herb. Stir and simmer for 3 hours. Strain the mixture through a cheesecloth. Add to a glass bowl and stir slowly, but continuously, until it cools and sets. With a small knife or spatula, place the set cream into dark glass jars. Tighten the lids and label.
Waxes are generally melted over a low heat. Oils are warmed and beaten into the wases. Then the heated water is dribbled into the blended wax and oil and the mixture stirred until cool. This takes about ten minutes. If the process is rushed, the oil and water may separate.
The proportions that govern consistency are easy to adjust. For a firmer cream, add more beeswax. For a softer cream, add more oil. Adding more water will make it lighter and fluffier, but it will also encourage the ingredients to separate more easily. Adding such mucilaginous herbs as marshmallow will make a cream spongier.

Recipes
Glycerin and Rosewater Cleansing Cream
*3-4 tablespoons shea butter
*2 fluid ounces almond oil
*1 tablespoon vegetable glycerin
*3 tablespoons rosewater
*6 drops essential oil of rose

Make sure all the ingredients are about the same temperature when they are mixed together or they will separate.
Gently heat the almond oil and glycerin. Beating constantly, or in a blender add the shea butter. Add rose water, while continuing to stir.
Set aside to cool. When cool blend in rose essential oil. Blend until creamy texture is obtained. Spoon into prepared jars and label.

Source : cloverleaffarmherbs

53

Genetic & Biotechnology / Genetically Modified Tomato

« on: April 13, 2014, 10:43:55 AM »

A genetically modified tomato, or transgenic tomato is a tomato that has had its genes modified, using genetic engineering. The first commercially available genetically modified food was a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life (the Flavr Savr). Currently there are no genetically modified tomatoes available commercially, but scientists are developing tomatoes with new traits like increased resistance to pests or environmental stresses. Other projects aim to enrich tomatoes with substances that may offer health benefits or be more nutritious. As well as aiming to produce novel crops, scientists produce genetically modified tomatoes to understand the function of genes naturally present in tomatoes.

The tomato originated from South America and was brought to Europe by the Spanish in the 16th century. Wild tomatoes are small, green and largely unappetizing, but after centuries of breeding there are now thousands of varieties grown worldwide. Agrobacterium-mediated genetic engineering techniques were developed in the late 1980s that could successfully transfer genetic material into the nuclear genome of tomatoes. Genetic material can also be inserted into a tomato cell's chloroplast and chromoplast pastimes using plastics. Tomatoes were the first food crop with an edible fruit where this was possible. Agrobacerium tumefaciens is an excellent species of soil dwelling bacteria that can infect plants with a piece of its own DNA. Agrobacterium mediated transformation is an effective and widely used approach to introduce foreign DNA into dicotyledon plants. The DNA gets a hold of the plant cell machinery and uses it to ensure the proliferation of the bacterial population. The advantage of this gene is that insecticidal toxin genes or other various herbicides can be engineered into the bacterial DNA. This bacterium shortens the plant breeding process. Most of all, it allows new genes to be engineered into crops.
Tomatoes have been used as a model organism to study the fruit ripening of climacteric fruit. To understand the mechanisms involved in the process of ripening, scientists have genetically engineered tomatoes.
In 1994, the Flavr Savr became the first commercially grown genetically engineered food to be granted a license for human consumption. A second copy of the tomato gene polygalacturonase was inserted into the tomato genome in the antisense direction. The polygalacturonase enzyme degrades pectin, a component of the tomato cell wall, causing the fruit to soften. When the antisense gene is expressed it interferes with the production of the polygalacturonase enzyme, delaying the ripening process. The Flavr Savr failed to achieve commercial success and was withdrawn from the market in 1997. Similar technology, but using a truncated version of the polygalacturonase gene, was used to make a tomato paste.
DNA Plant Technology (DNAP), Agritope and Monsanto developed tomatoes that delayed ripening by preventing the production of ethylene, a hormone that triggers ripening of fruit. All three tomatoes inhibited ethylene production by reducing the amount of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), the precursor to ethylene. DNAP's tomato, called Endless Summer, inserted a truncated version of the ACC synthase gene into the tomato that interfered with the endogenous ACC synthase.Monsanto's tomato was engineered with the ACC deaminase gene from the soil bacterium Pseudomonas chlororaphis that lowered ethylene levels by breaking down ACC.Agritope introduced an S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase (SAMase) encoding gene derived from the E. coli bacteriophage T3, which reduced the levels of S-adenosylmethionine, a precursor to ACC. Endless Summer was briefly tested in the marketplace, but patent arguments forced its withdrawal.
Scientists in India have delayed the ripening of tomatoes by silencing two genes encoding N-glycoprotein modifying enzymes, α-mannosidase and β-D-N-acetylhexosaminidase. The fruits produced were not visibly damaged after being stored at room temperature for 45 days, whereas unmodified tomatoes had gone rotten.In India, where 30% of fruit is wasted before it reaches the market due to a lack of refrigeration and poor road infrastructure, the researchers hope genetic engineering of the tomato may decrease wastage.
Abiotic stresses like frost, drought and increased salinity are a limiting factor to the growth of tomatoes.While no genetically modified stress tolerant plants are currently commercialised, transgenic approaches have been researched. An early tomato was developed that contained an antifreeze gene (afa3) from the winter flounder with the aim of increasing the tomato's tolerance to frost (see Fish tomato). The antifreeze protein was found to inhibit ice recrystallization in the flounders blood, but had no effect when expressed in transgenic tobacco.The resulting tomato was never commercialized, but raised ethical questions over adding genes from one kingdom to another.
Other genes from various species have been inserted into the tomato with the hope of increasing their resistance to various environmental factors. A gene from rice (Osmyb4), which codes for a transcription factor, that was shown to increase cold and drought tolerance in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants was inserted into the tomato. This resulted in increased drought tolerance, but did not appear to have any effect on cold tolerance. Overexpressing a vacuolar Na+/H+ antiport (AtNHX1) from A. thaliana lead to salt accumulating in the leaves of the plants, but not in the fruit and allowed them to grow more in salt solutions than wildtype plants.They were the first salt-tolerant, edible plants ever created. Tobacco osmotic genes overexpressed in tomatoes produced plants that held a higher water content than wildtype plants increasing tolerance to drought and salt stress.
The insecticidal toxin from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis has been inserted into a tomato plant. When field tested they showed resistance to the tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta), tomato fruitworm (Heliothis zea), the tomato pinworm (Keiferia lycopersicella) and the tomato fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera).A 91 day feeding trail in rats showed no adverse effects, but the Bt tomato has never been commercialised. Tomatoes resistant to a root knot nematode have been created by inserting a cysteine proteinase inhibitor gene from taro. A chemically synthesised ceropin B gene, usually found in the giant silk moth (Hyalophora cecropia), has been introduced into tomato plants and in vivo studies show significant resistance to bacterial wilt and bacterial spot.When the cell wall proteins, polygalacturonase and expansin are prevented from being produced in fruits, they are less susceptible to the fungus Botrytis cinerea than normal tomatoes. Pest resistant tomatoes can reduce the ecological footprint of tomato production while at the same time increase farm income.
Tomatoes have been altered in attempts to improve their flavour or nutritional content. In 2000, the concentration of pro-vitamin A was increased by adding a bacterial gene encoding phytoene desaturase, although the total amount of carotenoids remained equal.The researchers admitted at the time that it had no prospect of being grown commercially due to the anti-GM climate. Sue Meyer of the pressure group Genewatch, told The Independent that she believed, "If you change the basic biochemistry, you could alter the levels of other nutrients very important for health".More recently, scientists have increased the production of anthocyanin, an antioxidant in tomatoes in several ways. One group added a transcription factor for the production of anthocyanin from Arabidopsis thaliana[35] whereas another used transcription factors from snapdragon (Antirrhinum).[36] When the snapdragon genes where used, the fruits had similar anthocyanin concentrations to blackberries and blueberries, and when fed to cancer susceptible mice, extended their life span. Another group has tried to increase the levels of isoflavone, known for its potential cancer preventative properties, by introducing the soybean isoflavone synthase into tomatoes.
When geraniol synthase from lemon basil (Ocimum basilicum) was expressed in tomato fruits under a fruit-specific promoter, 60% of untrained taste testers preferred the taste and smell of the transgenic tomatoes. The fruits contained around half the amount of lycopene, reducing the health benefits of eating them.
Tomatoes (along with potatoes, bananas and other plants) are being investigated as vehicles for delivering edible vaccines. Clinical trials have been conducted on mice using tomatoes expressing antibodies or proteins that stimulate antibody production targeted to norovirus, hepatitis B, rabies, HIV, anthrax and respiratory syncytial virus. Korean scientists are looking at using the tomato to expressing a vaccine against Alzheimer's disease. Hilary Koprowski, who was involved in the development of the polio vaccine, is leading a group of researchers in developing a tomato expressing a recombinant vaccine to SARS.
Tomatoes are used as a model organism in scientific research and they are frequently genetically modified to further our understanding of particular processes. Tomatoes have been used as a model in map-based cloning, where trangsenic plants must be created to prove that a gene has been successfully isolated. The plant peptide hormone, systemin was first identified in tomato plants and genetic modification has been used to demonstrate its function, by adding antisense genes to silence the native gene, or by adding extra copies of the native gene

54

Genetic & Biotechnology / Gene expression tied to social behavior in honey bees

« on: April 13, 2014, 09:48:30 AM »

The various behaviors of honey bees, some of which are listed on the record card systems are listed along the left hand buttons.
Honey bees are social insects and are successful because the conduct of each individual bee is in concert with her sisters (and half sisters), but the behavior of groups of individuals is also complimentary in the main, although the groups represented by different patrilines, can often exhibit differences in demeanor. Overall, this diversity makes the whole unit more adaptable to changes in circumstance.

Reflection is the key to recognizing behaviors. This may be performed with sophisticated observation hives and equipment, or by making observations whilst conducting your routine bookkeeping. The "reading" of a colony is an ability that will come with experience, but remember that when a colony is smoked and taken apart, the coherence of the colony is disturbed and they won't behave normally. We must constantly recall it is dark inside a settlement and we introduce light when we spread it. The action that can be viewed on the alighting board can also be really exposing. The older beekeepers learnt much of what was taking place in their colonies from observation, simply by sitting and observing them.
If you are an objective observer and do not allow your conclusions to just settle in line with what you may have read about or been taught by others, you will find out a great deal.
Do not be afraid to challenge established thoughts and opinions, it is by constantly re-evaluating what we consider that our knowledge is gained.
In the context of bees the words 'behavior' and 'characteristic' may have a mixture of significances. They are used here with the widest interpretation, as in some cases I'm not sure if there is any conflict, e.g. I am not very sure whether drifting is a 'behavior' or a 'characteristic', but I have tagged it onto this card anyway.
This catalogue of behavioral characteristics (see the level I made above about meanings) keeps on rising... One affair that I am looking into with the thought of adding yet another page is... The allowance of a colony for multiple queens. Which is strongly linked with supersedure.

55

Life Science / Cultivated plants propagated by vegetative methods

« on: April 13, 2014, 09:32:24 AM »

A number of commonly cultivated plants are usually propagated by vegetative means rather than by seeds. This is a listing of such plants:

    African violets — leaf cuttings
    Apple — grafting
    Avocado — grafting
    Banana — sucker removal
    Blackberries (Rubus occidentalis) — stem cuttings
    Canna — division
    Cannabis — stem cuttings
    Citrus (lemon, orange, grapefruit, Tangerine, dayap) — grafting
    Date — sucker removal
    Fig — stem cuttings
    Garden strawberry — runners (stolons)
    Grapes — stem cuttings, grafting
    Hops — stem cuttings
    Manioc (cassava) — stem cuttings
    Maple — stem cuttings, grafting
    Nut crops (walnut, pecan) — grafting
    Olive — stem cuttings and layering
    Peach — grafting
    Pear — grafting
    Pineapple — stem cuttings
    Plum — stem cuttings
    Poplar — stem cuttings
    Potato — stem (tuber) cuttings
    Sansevieria - Leaf cuttings or division
    Sugar cane — stem cuttings
    Tea — stem cuttings
    Vanilla — stem cuttings
    Verbena — stem cuttings
    Willow — stem cuttings
    Bryophyllum - leaf cuttings

56

Genetic & Biotechnology / Nature of a Nerve Impulse

« on: April 07, 2014, 01:24:27 PM »

Nature of a Nerve Impulse
A nerve impulse is an electro-chemical message of neurons, the common functional denominator of all nervous system activity. Despite the unbelievable complexity of the nervous organization of many animals, nerve impulses are essentially alike in all nerve cells and in all creatures. An impetus is an “all-or none” phenomenon; either the fiber is taking an impulse, or it is not. Because all impulses are alike, the only means a nerve fiber can change its signal is by altering the frequency of impulse conduction. Frequency change is the terminology of a nerve fiber. A fiber may conduct no impulses at all or very few per second up to a maximum approaching 1000 per minute. The higher the frequency (or rate) of conduction, the heavier is the degree of innervation.

Resting Membrane Potential
Membranes of neurons, like all cellular membranes, have a special permeability that creates ionic imbalances. The interstitial fluid surrounding neurons contains relatively high concentrations of sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) ions, but a low absorption of potassium ions (K+) and large impermeable anions with a negative billing. Within the neuron, the ratio is reversed: the K+ and impermeable anion concentration is high, but the Na+ and Cl− concentrations are down (Figure 35-4; see also Figure 33-1B,) These differences are judged; there is about 10 times more Na+ outside than in and 25 to 30 times more K+ inside than out.

When at ease, the membrane of a nerve cell is selectively permeable to K+, which can cross the membrane through special potassium channels. The permeability to Na+ is nearly zero because the Na+ channels are shut in a breathing membrane. Potassium ions tend to diffuse outward through the membrane, following the gradient of potassium absorption. Very quickly the positive charge outside reaches a stage that prevents any more K+ from diffusing out of the axon (because, like charges repel each other), and because the large onions cannot pass through the membrane, the positively charged potassium ions are pulled backward into the cubicle. Straight off the remaining membrane is at equilibrium, with an electrical gradient that exactly balances the concentration gradient. This resting membrane voltage is usually −70 MV (millivolts), with the inside of the membrane negative with respect to the extraneous.


Action Potential
A nerve impulse is a rapidly moving changes in electrical membrane potential called an action potential (Figure 35-5). It is a very rapid and brief depolarization of the membrane of the nerve fiber. In more nerve fibers, the action potential does not simply give the membrane voltage to zero, but instead overshoots zero. In other words, the membrane potential reverses for an instant so that the outside becomes negative compared with the inner. Then, every bit the action potential moves ahead, the membrane returns to its normal resting membrane potential, ready to conduct another - impulse. The entire event occupies approximately a millisecond. Possibly the most important attribute of the nerve impulse is that it is self propagating; once set about the impulse moves ahead automatically, much like the burning of a primer.

What makes the reversal of polarity in the cell membrane during passing of an action potential? We have ensured that the resting membrane potential depends on the high membrane permeability (leakiness) to K+, some 50 to 70 times larger than the permeability to Na+. When the action potential arrives at a broken point, Na+ channels suddenly open, allowing a flood of Na+ to diffuse into the axon from the outside, making a motion down the concentration gradient for Na+. In reality only a very minute amount of Na+ moves across the membrane— less than one-millionth of the Na+outside—but this sudden surge of positive ions cancels the local resting membrane voltage. The membrane is depolarized, creating a minute electrical “hole.” K ions, finding their electrical barrier gone, begin to act outside the cubicle. Then, every bit the action potential passes, the membrane quickly regains its resting properties. It goes once again practically impermeable to Na+ and the outward movement of K+ is checked. Therefore, the growing phase of the action potential is linked up with the rapid influx (inward movement) of Na+ (Figure 35-5). When the action potential reaches its peak, Na+ permeability is restored to normal, and K+ permeability briefly increases above the breathing stage. Increased potassium permeability causes the action potential to sink quickly to the resting membrane level, during the repolarization phase. The membrane is immediately quick to transmit another nerve impulse.

Sodium Pump A resting cell membrane causes a very low permeability to Na+. Nevertheless, some Na+ leaks through it, even in the resting condition. When the axon is active, during an action potential, Na+ flows inward with each passing impulse. If not withdrawn, the accumulation of Na+ inside the axon would cause the resting membrane voltage of the fiber to decay. This decomposition is prevented by sodium pumps, each a complex of protein subunits embedded in the plasma membrane of the axon (see Figure 3-19,). Each sodium pump uses energy in ATP to transport sodium from the inside to the outside of the tissue layer. The sodium pump in nerve axons, as in many other cell membranes, also moves K+ into the axon while it is moving Na+ out. Therefore, it is a sodium-potassium exchange pump that assists to regenerate the ion gradients of both Na+ and K+. The astrocytes (mentioned earlier) help to sustain the right proportion of ions surrounding neurons by sweeping away excess potassium produced during neuronal activity.

High-speed Conduction
Although the ionic and electrical events associated with action potentials are much the same throughout the animal kingdom, conduction velocities vary enormously from nerve to nerve and from animal to animal—from as slow as 0.1 m/Sec in sea anemones to as fast as 120 m/soak in some mammalian motor axons. The velocity of conduction is closely associated to the diameter of the axon. Small axons conduct slowly because the internal impedance to current current is high. In most invertebrates, where faster conduction velocities are important for quick reaction, such as in locomotion to capture prey or to avoid capture, axon diameters are larger. The giant axon of squids is nearly 1 mm in diameter and carries impulses 10 times quicker than ordinary characters in the same animal. A squid giant axon innervates the animal’s mantle musculature and is utilized for powering mantle contractions when the animal swims by jet propulsion. Similar giant axons enable earthworms, which are normally dull-acting beasts, to take back almost instantaneously into their burrows when startled.


Some invertebrates, including prawns and insects, also take in fast fibers invested with multiple layers of a myelin-like heart that is broken at intervals much like myelinated fibers of vertebrates. Conduction rates, though not equally fast as vertebrate saltatory conduction, are a lot faster than unmyelinated fibers of the same diameter in other invertebrates.

Vertebrates do not possess giant axons, but they can achieve high conduction velocities in some other direction, by a cooperative relationship between axons and the investing layers of myelin laid down by the Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes described earlier. Insulating myelin sheaths are interrupted at intervals by clients (called nodes of Ranvier) where the surface of the axon is exposed to fluid surrounding the face. In these myelinated fibers the action potential depolarizes the axon membrane only at the nodes because the myelin sheath prevents depolarization elsewhere (Figure 35-6). The ion pumps and canals that move ions across the membrane are concentrated in each client. In one case an action potential starts down an axon, depolarization of the first node initiates an electrical flow that extends away to the neighboring node, having it to depolarize and trigger an action potential. Hence the action potential leaps from node to node, a form of conduction called statutory (L. Salt, to dance, leap). The increase in efficiency as compared with nonmyelinated fibers is impressive. For instance, a frog myelinated axon only 12 µm in diameter conducts nerve impulses at the same velocity as a squid axon 350 µm in diameter.


Source:E plant Science

57

Genetic & Biotechnology / Synapses: Junctions between the Nerves

« on: April 07, 2014, 01:08:13 PM »

Synapses: Junctions between the Nerves 
When an action potential passes down an axon to its conclusion, it must indulge a small pause, the synapse (Gr. Synapsis, contact, union), identifying it from some other nerve cell or an effector organ. Two distinct kinds of synapses are known: electrical and chemical.

Electrical synapses, although much less common than chemical synapses, have been produced in both invertebrate and vertebrate groups. Electrical synapses are points at which ionic currents flow at once across a narrow gap junction (see Figure) from one heart cell to another. Electrical synapses show no time lag and therefore are important for escape reactions. They likewise have been noted in other excitable cell types, and form an important method of communication between cardiac muscle cells of the facial expression and smooth muscle cells (for example, the uterus,).

A great deal more complex than electrical synapses are chemical synapses, which contain packets of specialized chemicals called neurotransmitters. Neurons bringing impulses toward chemical synapses are called presynaptic neurons; those carrying impulses away are postsynaptic neurons. At a synapse, membranes are separated by a minute gap, the synaptic cleft, having a width of about 20 millimeter.

The axon of most neurons divides at its terminal into many parts, each of which has a synaptic knob that sits along the dendrites or cell body of the next nerve cell (Figure 35-7A). Because a single impulse coming down a nerve axon is transmitted along these many branches and synaptic endings on the next neuron, many impulses converge on the cell body at one minute. In essence, the axon terminations of many neurons may almost cover a nerve cell body and its dendrites with thousands of synapses. The 20 mm fluid-filled gap between presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes prevents action potentials from spreading like a shot to the postsynaptic neuron. Instead the synaptic knobs secrete a specific neurotransmitter that communicates chemically with the postsynaptic cell. One of the most common neurotransmitters of the peripheral neural system is acetylcholine, which illustrates typical synaptic transmission. Deep down the synaptic knobs are numerous tiny synaptic vesicles, each comprising several thousand molecules of acetylcholine. Evidence indicates that when an impulse arrives at a terminal knob a sequence of cases occurs as portrayed in Figure. The action potential has an inward movement of calcium (Ca+) ions through channels in the synaptic knob membrane and this induces exocytosis of some neurotransmitter-filled synaptic vesicles. Acetylcholine molecules diffuse across the interruption in a fraction of a millisecond and blend briefly to receptor molecules on ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane. This makes a possible change in the postsynaptic membrane. Whether the potential change is big enough to trigger a postsynaptic potential depends on how many acetylcholine molecules are liberated and how many ducts are clear. Acetylcholine is rapidly put down by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which converts acetylcholine into acetate and choline. If not inactivated in this manner, the neurotransmitter would continue to stimulate indefinitely. Organophosphate insecticides (such as malathion) and certain military nerve gases are poisonous for precisely this reason; they block acetylcholinesterase. The last step in the sequence is absorbed of choline into the presynaptic terminal, resynthesis of acetylcholine and its stored in synaptic vesicles, ready to react to another impulse.

Many different chemical neurotransmitters have been placed in both vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems. Some, such as acetylcholine, norepinephrine, and glutamate, depolarize postsynaptic membranes; they are released at excitatory synapses. Other neurotransmitters, such as gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), hyperpolarize postsynaptic membranes; thereby stabilizing them against depolarization. These neurotransmitters are released at inhibitory synapses. Nerve cells in the cardinal nervous system have both excitatory and inhibitory synapses among the hundreds or thousands of synaptic knobs on the dendrites and cell body of each nerve cell.

The net remainder of all excitatory and inhibitory inputs received by a postsynaptic cell determines whether it gets an action potential. If many excitatory impulses are picked up at one time, they can bring down the resting membrane potential enough in the postsynaptic membrane to elicit an action potential. Inhibitory impulses, however, stabilize the postsynaptic membrane, making it less likely that an action potential will be bred. The synapse is an indispensable part of the decision-making equipment of the central nervous system, modulating the flow of information from single nerve cell to the next.


Source :Eplant Science

58

Life Science / Magnolia champaca

« on: November 13, 2013, 10:44:12 AM »

Common name: Champa
Botanical name: Magnolia champaca   
Family: Magnoliaceae (Magnolia family)
Bangla Name:চম্পা

Champa is native to Indonesia, India and other neighbouring areas. It occurs naturally in the eastern Himalayan region. It is a large evergreen tree with a long straight bole of 18-21 m with a close tapering crown composed of ascending branches. The most interesting part of the tree are its flowers which are not very showy with few narrow yellowish white petals, but have an extremely heady fragrance. This fragrance has made Champa flowers very popular and they have been part of the culture in India from time immemorial. They are used in religeous offering in various parts of India. On a warm humid night, the scents can easily be enjoyed several hundred feet away. Champa flowers are used to make the world's most expensive perfume 'Joy' in America.

59

Life Science / Chinese albizia

« on: November 13, 2013, 10:40:42 AM »

Common name: Chinese albizia
Botanical name: Albizia chinensis   
Family: Mimosaceae (Touch-me-not family)
Bangla Name:চাকুয়া কড়াই

Chinese albizia is a large deciduous tree with broad flat-topped crown and smooth grey bark. Leaves are double compound, like those of Gulmohar, but the final leaflets are very numerous, 10 mm long. Flowers are yellowish white, in clusters occuring either in the leaf axils or at the end of branches. Long white numerous stamens make it look like a powder-puff flower. Flower look thinner than those of Siris Tree. Important browse tree in hilly areas; also grown for shade on plantations and for the manurial value of the fallen leaves. The branches are used for fodder at the end of the growing season when the leaves are past their succulent stage.

60

Life Science / Allamanda cathartica

« on: November 13, 2013, 10:32:34 AM »

Common name: Golden Trumpet Vine
Botanical name: Allamanda cathartica     
Family: Apocynaceae (Oleander family)
Bangla Name:ঘন্টা লতা

A tropical twining vine, native to Brazil, with deeply veined, whorled leaves and large, trumpet shaped bright yellow flowers. Prickly seed pods follow the flowers with winged seeds that fly about when the pod dries and breaks open. The Allamanda vine is a fast growing rampant vine that always looks better with training and pruning. It flowers almost all year. The plant has milky sap and is considered poisonous; all parts are highly cathartic (hence the botanical name) Texture is coarse and leaves are bright to light green; the plant is often pruned and used as a shrub.