Faculty of Humanities and Social Science > English Language Skills
Literary Terms
Binoy:
Aposiopesis
অসমাপ্ত বাক্যবিধি
Aposiopesis is when a sentence is purposefully left incomplete or cut off. It’s caused by an inability or unwillingness to continue speaking. This allows the ending to be filled in by the listener’s imagination. In order to show aposiopesis in a sentence, one may use the em dash (–) or ellipsis (…). Aposiopesis may be used to express speechlessness caused by great emotion or passion, such as rage, frustration, or fear. It may also be used to avoid speaking of certain topics or to direct an audience’s attention to a new subject. Aposiopesis is used in literature for dramatic effects. It can show that a character is overwhelmed with emotion. Or, it can allow the reader to fill in horrors or threats with their own imaginations. When characters pause due to strong emotion or searching for words, they appear more realistic and believable.The word aposiopesis is derived from the Greek phrase aposiōpaein, meaning “to become totally silent.”
Example 1
Aposiopesis type: audience-respecting
This type of aposiopesis does not to include details or thoughts which may be offensive or unpleasant to readers or listeners. For example, while discussing a court case in front of a jury, a lawyer may state:
After the suspect… Well, you’ve read the court documents. After the heinous crime was completed, the suspect fled the scene.
Example 2
Aposiopesis type: surprising
This type of aposiopesis does not give information that the audience wants or expects to receive. This gains the audience’s interest in the information that will later be revealed. For example, it is often used in newscasts:
On tonight’s newscast, we will begin to discover what happens when two animals become unlikely friends… More on this story on The Evening News at 8.
Example 3
Aposiopesis type: emotional
Similar to emphatic aposiopesis, emotive aposiopesis does not finish a sentence due to an emotional outburst. This type of aposiopesis does not finish an idea in order to express that it is beyond description. Imagine an angry man who is so angry he can’t even think of what he wants to do to express that anger:
I’m so angry, I could– I could–!
Example 4
Aposiopesis type: transition
Used mostly in speech-making, the transition aposiopesis ( or transitio-aposiopesis ) is used to make a transition from one subject to another. By removing the conclusion from one idea, the speaker immediately gains the listeners’ interest in the next section of the speech:
And, in conclusion… Well, enough of that. Let’s move on to the next point.
Example 5
An example of this may be found in Shakespeare’s King Lear. Lear is so upset he cannot think of proper punishment for his misbehaving daughters:
I will have revenges on you both
That all the world shall– I will do such things–
What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be
The terrors of the earth!
The use of aposiopesis here serves to show that Lear is so angry, he cannot speak clearly or think of specific threats.
Example 6
Similarly, Mark Twain’s Aunt Polly is overcome with emotion but is unable to complete her thought:
She looked perplexed for a moment, and then said, not fiercely, but still loud enough for the furniture to hear:
“‘Well, I lay if I get hold of you I’ll–‘
She did not finish, for by this time she was bending down and punching under the bed with the broom.
Aposiopesis has a wide range of uses, but is most common in literature. It is a way of reflecting that a character has become overwhelmed with emotion or passion.
Binoy:
Archaism
পুরনো অপ্রচলিত শব্দ
An archaism is an old word or expression that is no longer used with its original meaning or is only used in specific studies or areas. The word archaism is derived from the Greek word archaïkós meaning “ancient.” Archaisms exist, naturally, because language is always changing through the years unless artificially held back. Shakespeare’s English–Elizabethan English—evolved into the many dialects of modern English. Archaisms are most important because they remain in use in certain limited fields of activity—especially law, government, and religion—the most conservative and traditional areas of activity in our world. But archaisms can also be used by anyone anytime in speech or writing, to create an atmosphere of antiquity, and also, to give one’s language a feeling of official-ness, royalty, or religious authority.
Example 1
This above all: to thine own self be true.
This often quoted line from Shakespeare’s Hamlet has an archaism—thine—as well as archaic sentence structure. The modern translation would be: This above all: be true to yourself.
Example 2
Do you bite your thumb at us, sir?
A modern response to this question would be, “Do I what?” This line is also from Shakespeare. The expression “to bite one’s thumb” at someone once meant to bite and flick one’s thumb towards someone, which was an offensive and insulting gesture.
Example 3
The language of lawyers and laws is filled with archaisms such as heretofore, hereunto, thereof, etc.
Often used in Shakespearean studies, this phrase may be translated to: The lady solemnly declares too much, I think.
This last example calls attention to the fact that although archaisms are not used much anymore, they are used. If a word or phrase is not used at all anymore, in any context, it is not an archaism; it is obsolete.
Binoy:
Bathos
ভাবগম্ভীর থেকে হাস্যকর
an abrupt turn from the serious and poetic to the regular and silly
Bathos, when unintentional, shows how easily serious scenes and subjects can be undermined by poor writing as the serious tone turns into a ridiculous and hilarious tone. When intentional, it shows just how funny it is when such serious scenes are abruptly interrupted by unexpected and silly subjects or circumstances. Typically, serious moments are separated from comedic moments. When they are combined through bathos, the sudden change in tone surprises the audience with the unexpected comedic touch.
Example 1
Her hair was finely curled, her cheeks were lined with rouge, and her dress was a flowing green and blue which made her look rather like a tired, old peacock.
The previous sentence is an example of bathos: Rather than likening the woman to a beautiful bird, she is compared, surprisingly, to a tired, old peacock.
Example 2
He spent his final hour of life doing what he loved most: arguing with his wife.
Whereas the description of someone’s final hours is usually respectful and solemn, this one is surprisingly and unexpected humorous due to bathos.
Example 3
After training for the entire year and successfully running his first marathon, Ben was desperate, nearly insane, for a saturated fat-filled chocolate bar.
Expected needs would include water and food, but the urge for junk food is surprising in a star athlete.
Example 4
She urged her friend to reconsider her decision, as she could be making a huge mistake wearing a green, short dress rather than a long, red dress.
Serious, life-changing decisions usually do not concern wardrobe changes, but a sentence using bathos does.
Example 5
Alexander Pope, critic who coined the term bathos, uses the device in his poem The Rape of the Lock:
Not louder Shrieks to pitying Heav’n are cast,
When Husbands or when Lap-dogs breath their last.
Hilariously, Pope places lap-dogs and husbands on the same level for the sadness they cause when they die.
Binoy:
Burlesque
রঙ্গব্যঙ্গ
Burlesque is a style in literature and drama that mocks or imitates a subject by representing it in an ironic or ludicrous way; resulting in comedy. It is a form of the literary genre, satire. The term “burlesque” originates from the Italian burla and later burlesco, meaning ridicule, mockery, or joke. Correspondingly, burlesque creates humor by ridiculing or mimicking serious works, genres, subjects, and/or authors in one of two ways: either by presenting significant subjects in an absurd or crude way, or by presenting insignificant subjects in a sophisticated way. As a literary and dramatic device, the term is often used interchangeably with parody, though a parody is actually type of burlesque.
Burlesque literature is much more than mere comedy and entertainment. It has been a major literary and dramatic technique for social activism and commentary for thousands of years; using humor to attract attention to serious and unresolved issues in society. Nowadays, the main purpose of burlesque literature and drama is generally entertainment and comedy, but it has historically been an important way of using humor to critique social issues.
Example 1
As mentioned above, burlesque works mimic the styles and subjects of other works in a humorous way. Take the classic cute love poem:
Roses are red,
Violets are blue,
Sugar is sweet,
And so are you!
A burlesque version of the poem, specifically a parody, would be:
Roses prick your fingers,
Violets make you sneeze,
Sugar fills your veins with fat,
It’s best you stick to peas!
First, the poem above mimics the style of the first poem in that it follows the same ABCB rhyme scheme. Second, it mimics the subject of the first poem by using the same words—roses, violets, sugar, and you. However, the second poem is funny because it highlights the negative elements of these things rather than the positive. Thus, by changing these words to funny alternatives, while keeping the same style, the second poem mocks the traditional love poem, making it a burlesque poem.
Example 2
Burlesque was made most popular during the Victorian era of literature. Jane Austen’s Northanger Abbey is a parody of gothic fiction, which was a very popular genre of literature for young Victorian women. The story follows Catherine Morland, a young woman with a vivid imagination, which is the author suggests is “caused” by her love of gothic novels. Austen is mocking the popular Victorian mentality that literature could cause fantastic, improper, and unrealistic ideas as a result of reading fiction. Northanger Abbey follows the style of gothic novel because Catherine experiences similar feelings and situations that a gothic heroine would face—fear, mystery, curiousity, danger—however it is a parody because nothing scary or mysterious ever actually happens to Catherine, she just has an active imagination. See the selection below:
Catherine’s blood ran cold with the horrid suggestions which naturally sprang from these words. Could it be possible? – Could Henry’s father? – And yet how many were the examples to justify even the blackest suspicions!
Here, the language is gothic in style—blood ran cold, horrid, blackest suspicions. However, after this, we learn that Catherine is just imagining nonsense—nothing out of the ordinary ever occurs throughout the novel. Catherine longs for mystery and adventure like her novels provide, so she imagines countless things to be evidence of conspiracy and horror, realizing after each time how silly she was being.
Example 3
Jonathan Swift is one of literature’s greatest satirists, and his essay A Modest Proposal is an excellent example of a burlesque work that critiques serious social issues, specifically those of 18th century Irish society, such as poverty and the way the rich treat and view the poor. In his essay he suggests several solutions to these problems—
I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least objection.
I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricasie, or a ragoust.
In this passage, Swift suggests that children make an excellent food. He continues his essay by defending the reasons why it is an excellent solution to poverty, as many poor people have extra children that they could use to feed mouths, rather than as mouths to feed. Obviously, these ideas are over-the-top and outrageous; which is precisely the point of the essay. It mocks a very serious issue; which highlights its importance and begs for change in society.
Binoy:
Catharsis
আবেগ নির্গম
Catharsis, meaning “cleansing” in Greek, refers to a literary theory first developed by the philosopher Aristotle, who believed that cleansing our emotions was the purpose of a good story, especially a tragedy. Catharsis applies to any form of art or media that makes us feel strong negative emotions, but that we are nonetheless drawn to – we may seek out art that creates these emotions because the experience purges the emotions from our system. We can feel something intense, then walk out of the theater feeling better afterwards. Catharsis is roughly synonymous with the idea of “blowing off steam.”
Aristotle was perhaps the greatest philosopher of the ancient world, and he was curious about everything – biology, physics, politics, ethics, literature, etc. This powerful thinker raised many insightful questions and tried to answer them through philosophy. One question that particularly vexed Aristotle was: why do we enjoy watching or reading tragedies? Why do we enjoy stories that make us sad?
It’s important to remember that ancient Greek culture had real tragedies, which modern culture generally doesn’t. Hollywood seems to be addicted to happy endings, which means almost none of our popular stories are really “tragic” in the true sense. After all, a real tragedy is one in which the hero is ultimately destroyed and there is no happy ending to be found. So when Aristotle pondered the question of tragedy, he was wondering why so many people in his society preferred stories that had unhappy endings.
His theory, as we’ve seen, was that such stories are cathartic. We feel such tremendous sympathy for the hero, such rage at the villain, such sorrow at the tragic ending, that we can then walk out of the theater and back into our own lives with less “baggage,” – less pent-up emotion threatening to boil over.
Example 1
Romeo and Juliet is a great example of a tragedy, and its popularity might be explained by the idea of catharsis. In the end, the young lovers end up dead because they made the mistake of following their childish passions instead of being rational and patient. (It was intended as a cautionary tale, not a celebration of romantic love!) As an audience, we feel sympathy and pity for Romeo and Juliet, but we may also feel some relief at the end due to the effects of catharsis.
Example 2
In Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe takes the structure of a classical tragedy and applies it to African culture. He tells the story of a powerful village leader whose arrogance drives away his supporters. He is ultimately brought so low that he kills himself. Catharsis, along with Achebe’s skill as a writer, may help to explain why this story is so popular.
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