Daffodil International University
Faculty of Humanities and Social Science => English => English Language Skills => Topic started by: Binoy on July 04, 2019, 08:58:10 PM
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Literary terms are important for those who want to get an accurate taste of literature or make an assessment of literature. Each literary term is essentially a literary device. That is why these two phrases are often used interchangeably.
Literary terms refer to the technique, style, and formatting used by writers and speakers to masterfully emphasize, embellish, or strengthen their compositions. Literary terms can refer to playful techniques employed by comedians to make us laugh or witty tricks wordsmiths use to coin new words or phrases. They can also include the tools of persuasion that writers use to convince and drive audiences to action. With their carefully crafted speeches geared towards both logical and emotional thinking, they challenge our everyday modes of thinking.
Literary terms also include powerful figurative language that writers use to summon emotion ranging from guilt to anger to bliss, and to allow us to see the world in new and magical ways. Words can be arranged to give poems, songs, and prose alike, rhythm and musicality. They can animate a story with such wealth of detail, character development, and action that as readers, we are taken by a story, and feel as if the people on the page are real. Literary terms have a wide range of application, from the poet’s beauty, to the speaker’s persuasion, to the novelist’s story development.
Sources:
https://literary-devices.com/
https://literaryterms.net/
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Allegory
রূপকবর্ণনা; প্রতীকাশ্রয়ী কাহিনি
Definition:
An allegory suggests a hidden meaning via the use of metaphoric examples. An allegory is a device where the meaning of a greater, often abstract moral or political concept is conveyed with the aid of more material objects or ideas being used as an example.
Example:
Faith is like a stony uphill climb: a single stumble might send you sprawling but belief and steadfastness will see you to the very top.
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Alliteration
ধ্বনিসাম্য
Definition:
Alliteration is a literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters belonging to the same sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound or a specific vowel group, the alliteration involves creating a repetition of similar sounds in the sentence. Alliterations are also created when the words all begin with the same letter. Alliterations are used to add character to the writing and often add an element of ‘fun’ to the piece.
Example:
The Wicked Witch of the West went her own way. The ‘W’ sound is highlighted and repeated throughout the sentence.
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Allusion
দূরোল্লেখ
Definition:
An allusion is a figure of speech whereby the author refers to a subject matter such as a place, event, or literary work by way of a passing reference. It is up to the reader to make a connection to the subject being mentioned.
Example:
It’s no wonder everyone refers to Mary as another Mother Teresa in the making; she loves to help and care after people everywhere, from the streets to her own friends.
In the example the author uses the mention of Mother Teresa to indicate the sort of qualities that Mary has.
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Amplification
তীব্রতাবর্ধন
Definition:
Amplification refers to a literary practice wherein the writer embellishes the sentence by adding more information to it in order to increase its worth and understandability. When a plain sentence is too abrupt and fails to convey the full implications desired, amplification comes into play when the writer adds more to the structure to give it more meaning.
Example:
Original sentence: “The thesis paper was difficult.” After amplification: “The thesis paper was difficult: it required extensive research, data collection, sample surveys, interviews and a lot of fieldwork.”
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Anagram
ধ্বনিশব্দ
Definition:
Anagrams are an extremely popular form of literary device wherein the writer jumbles up parts of the word to create a new word. From the syllables of a phrase to the individual letters of a word, any fraction can be jumbled to create a new form. Anagram is a form of wordplay that allows the writer to infuse mystery and a little interactive fun in the writing so that the reader can decipher the actual word on their own and discover a depth of meaning to the writing.
Example:
An anagram for “debit card” is “bad credit”. As you can see, both phrases use the same letters. By mixing the letters a bit of humor is created.
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Analogy
তুলনা, উপমান
Definition:
An analogy is a literary device that helps to establish a relationship based on similarities between two concepts or ideas. By using an analogy we can convey a new idea by using the blueprint of an old one as a basis for understanding. With a mental linkage between the two, one can create understanding regarding the new concept in a simple and succinct manner.
Example:
In the same way as one cannot have the rainbow without the rain, one cannot achieve success and riches without hard work.
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Anastrophe
প্রথমে বিশেষ্য পরে বিশেষণ
Definition:
Anastrophe is a form of literary device wherein the order of the noun and the adjective in the sentence is exchanged. In standard parlance and writing the adjective comes before the noun but when one is employing an anastrophe the noun is followed by the adjective. This reversed order creates a dramatic impact and lends weight to the description offered by the adjective.
Example:
He spoke of times past and future, and dreamt of things to be.
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Anecdote
অভিজ্ঞতাসঞ্জাত বচন; অনুকথন
Definition:
The word anecdote, phonetically pronounced an.ik.doht, means a short verbal accounting of a funny, amusing, interesting event or incident. The story is usually a reminiscence from the teller’s life but at best is a related story of fact, as opposed to a contrived work of fiction. The origin of the word anecdote comes from the Greek Byzantine period, A.D. 527 to 565 during the reign of emperor Justinian.
Example:
Amusing anecdotes many times find their way into wedding receptions, family reunions and any other gathering of people who know each other well. Teachers and educators often tell classrooms of pupils anecdotes about famous people. The anecdotes are not always flattering, but are usually revealing of character and invariably amusing. Here is an example of an anecdote about Winston Churchill:
Winston Churchill was very fond of his pet dog Rufus. He ate in the dining room with the family on a special cloth and was treated with utmost respect. When enjoying movies, Rufus had the best seat in the house; on Winston Churchill’s lap. While watching “Oliver Twist,” Churchill put his hands over Rufus’ eyes during the scene where Bill Sike’s intends to drown his dog. Churchill is believed to have said to Rufus: “don’t look now, dear. I’ll tell you about it later.”
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Anthropomorphism
মানবায়ন
Definition:
Anthropomorphism can be understood to be the act of lending a human quality, emotion or ambition to a non-human object or being. This act of lending a human element to a non-human subject is often employed in order to endear the latter to the readers or audience and increase the level of relativity between the two while also lending character to the subject.
Example:
The raging storm brought with it howling winds and fierce lightning as the residents of the village looked up at the angry skies in alarm.
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Antithesis
বিরোধাভাস
Definition:
An antithesis is used when the writer employs two sentences of contrasting meanings in close proximity to one another. Whether they are words or phrases of the same sentence, an antithesis is used to create a stark contrast using two divergent elements that come together to create one uniform whole. An antithesis plays on the complementary property of opposites to create one vivid picture. The purpose of using an antithesis in literature is to create a balance between opposite qualities and lend a greater insight into the subject.
Example:
When Neil Armstrong walked on the moon it might have been one small step for a man but it was one giant leap for mankind.
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Aphorism
প্রাজ্ঞোক্তি; প্রবচন
Definition:
An aphorism is a concise statement that is made in a matter of fact tone to state a principle or an opinion that is generally understood to be a universal truth. Aphorisms are often adages, wise sayings and maxims aimed at imparting sense and wisdom. It is to be noted that aphorisms are usually witty and curt and often have an underlying tone of authority to them.
Example:
Upon seeing the shoddy work done by the employee, the boss told him that anything worth doing, is worth doing well.
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Archetype
মৌলরূপ; আদর্শ প্রকরণ
Definition:
An archetype is a reference to a concept, a person or an object that has served as a prototype of its kind and is the original idea that has come to be used over and over again. Archetypes are literary devices that employ the use of a famous concept, person or object to convey a wealth of meaning. Archetypes are immediately identifiable and even though they run the risk of being overused, they are still the best examples of their kind.
Example:
Romeo and Juliet are an archetype of eternal love and a star-crossed love story.
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Assonance
স্বরসাম্য
Definition:
Assonance refers to repetition of sounds produced by vowels within a sentence or phrase. In this regard assonance can be understood to be a kind of alliteration. What sets it apart from alliterations is that it is the repetition of only vowel sounds. Assonance is the opposite of consonance, which implies repetitive usage of consonant sounds.
Example:
“A long song”. (Where the ‘o’ sound is repeated in the last two words of the sentence)
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Asyndeton
অব্যয়লোপ
Definition:
Asyndeton refers to a practice in literature whereby the author purposely leaves out conjunctions in the sentence, while maintaining the grammatical accuracy of the phrase. Asyndeton as a literary tool helps in shortening up the implied meaning of the entire phrase and presenting it in a succinct form. This compact version helps in creating an immediate impact whereby the reader is instantly attuned to what the writer is trying to convey. Use of this literary device helps in creating a strong impact and such sentences have greater recall worth since the idea is presented in a nutshell.
Example:
1. Read, Write, Learn.
2. Watch, Absorb, Understand.
3. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
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Authorial Intrusion
লেখক-কণ্ঠ
Definition:
Authorial Intrusion is an interesting literary device wherein the author penning the story, poem or prose steps away from the text and speaks out to the reader. Authorial Intrusion establishes a one to one relationship between the writer and the reader where the latter is no longer a secondary player or an indirect audience to the progress of the story but is the main subject of the author’s attention.
Example:
In many olden novels, especially in suspense novels, the protagonist would move away from the stream of the story and speak out to the reader. This technique was often used to reveal some crucial elements of the story to the reader even though the protagonist might remain mystified within the story for the time being.
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Bibliomancy
বাইবেল-ভিত
Definition:
As the very name itself suggests, this kind of literary device finds its roots in biblical origins. This term refers to the practice of basing a plot happening or event and anticipating the results it will have on a faction of the Bible. It involves a random selection process wherein the biblical passage is chosen as a founding stone for basing the outcome of the writing. In an overall context, not limited to just literature, bibliomancy refers to foretelling the future by turning to random portions of the Bible for guidance.
Example:
The Vedas serve as a tool for bibliomancy to the Hindus while Muslims rely on the Koran.
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Bildungsroman
কেন্দ্রীয় চরিত্র বর্ধন
Definition:
This is a very popular form of storytelling whereby the author bases the plot on the overall growth of the central character throughout the timeline of the story. As the story progresses, the subject undergoes noticeable mental, physical, social, emotional, moral, and often spiritual advancement and strengthening before the readers’ eyes. It has often been seen that the protagonist begins with views, aims and dreams that are in contrast to the other character’s in the story and then fights his or her way through to achieve them.
Example:
Scarlet O’Hara in Gone With the Wind experiences immense personal growth as she learns the value of friends and hard work under duress, without compromising her own dreams.
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Cacophony
শোরগোল; কর্কশ শব্দ
Definition:
A cacophony in literature refers to the use of words and phrases that imply strong, harsh sounds within the phrase. These words have jarring and dissonant sounds that create a disturbing, objectionable atmosphere.
Example:
His fingers rapped and pounded the door, and his foot thumped against the yellowing wood.
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Caesura
বিরাম; উচ্চারণ বিরতি
Definition:
This literary device involves creating a fracture of sorts within a sentence where the two separate parts are distinguishable from one another yet intrinsically linked to one another. The purpose of using a caesura is to create a dramatic pause, which has a strong impact. The pause helps to add an emotional, often theatrical touch to the sentence and conveys a depth of sentiment in a short phrase.
Example:
Mozart- oh how your music makes me soar!
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Characterization
চরিত্র চিত্রন; চরিত্রায়ন
Definition:
Characterization in literature refers the step by step process wherein an author introduces and then describes a character. The character can be described directly by the author or indirectly through the actions, thoughts, and speech of the character.
Example:
Michael Corleone was not jus’ a mafiaso, but a family man. A man who walked the knife’s edge to preserve his sanity.
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Chiasmus
প্রতিশব্দবন্ধ
Definition:
Chiasmus is a figure of speech containing two phrases that are parallel but inverted to each other.
Example:
You can take the patriot out of the country but you cannot take the country out of the patriot.
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Circumlocution
জটিলপ্রকাশ
Definition:
Circumlocution is a form of writing where the writer uses exaggeratedly long and complex sentences in order to convey a meaning that could have otherwise been conveyed through a shorter, much simpler sentence. Circumlocution involves stating an idea or a view in an indirect manner that leaves the reader guessing and grasping at the actual meaning.
Example:
Instead of writing “At 8 pm he arrived by car for the dinner party.” the author writes, “Around 3 hours after sunset, it was winter at the time, the man arrived in a combustion engine driven piece of technology with four wheels to join other bipedal creatures in the ingestion of somewhat large quantities of food and drink while having discourse around a large wooden mesa designed for such a purpose”.
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Conflict
দ্বন্দ্ব বা সংঘাত
Definition:
It is a literary device used for expressing a resistance the protagonist of the story finds in achieving his aims or dreams. The conflict is a discord that can have external aggressors or can even arise from within the self. It can occur when the subject is battling his inner discord, at odds with his surroundings or it may be pitted against others in the story.
Example:
John tried hard to convince himself that his Hollywood dreams were worth the struggle but his parents, and his inner voice of reason, failed to agree.
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Connotation
ব্যঞ্জনা; অন্তরার্থ, গূঢ়ার্থ, গভীরার্থ
Definition:
Connotations are the associations people make with words that go beyond the literal or dictionary definition. Many words have connotations that create emotions or feelings in the reader.
Example:
And once again, the autumn leaves were falling.
This phrase uses ‘autumn’ to signify something coming to an end.
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Consonance
ব্যঞ্জনসাম্য
Definition:
Consonance refers to repetition of sounds in quick succession produced by consonants within a sentence or phrase. The repetitive sound is often found at the end of a word. Consonance is the opposite of assonance, which implies repetitive usage of vowel sounds.
Example:
He struck a streak of bad luck.
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Denotation
বাহ্যার্থ, বহিরার্থ; আভিধানিক অর্থ
Definition:
Denotation refers to the use of the dictionary definition or literal meaning of a word.
Example:
They built a house.
In the above sentence, house is meant literally as in a building where a family lives. If the word “home” was used instead in the above sentence in place of “house”, the meaning would not be so literal as there are many emotions associated with the word “home” beyond simply the structure where people live.
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Deus ex Machina
দৈব সমাধান
Definition:
Deus ex Machina is a rather debatable and often criticized form of literary device. It refers to the incidence where an implausible concept or character is brought into the story in order to make the conflict in the story resolve and to bring about a pleasing solution. The use of Deus ex Machina is not recommended as it is seen to be the mark of a poor plot that the writer needs to resort to random, insupportable and unbelievable twists and turns to reach the end of the story.
Example:
If in a suspense novel the protagonist suddenly finds a solution to his dilemmas because of divine intervention.
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Diction
শব্দচয়ন
Definition:
Diction is the distinctive tone or tenor of an author’s writings. Diction is not just a writer’s choice of words it can include the mood, attitude, dialect and style of writing. Diction is usually judged with reference to the prevailing standards of proper writing and speech and is seen as the mark of quality of the writing. It is also understood as the selection of certain words or phrases that become peculiar to a writer.
Example:
Certain writers in the modern day and age use archaic terms such as ‘thy’, ‘thee’ and ‘wherefore’ to imbue a Shakespearean mood to their work.
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Doppelganger
দ্বিচরিত্র
Definition:
The term is derived from the German language and literally translates into ‘double walker’. It refers to a character in the story that is actually a counterfeit or a copy of a genuine character. Doppelgangers of the main characters usually bear the ability to impersonate the original but have vastly different spirits and intentions. The doppelganger usually has a different appearance but an earthly soul and supernatural hoodwinking abilities that allow it to fool other unsuspecting characters.
Example:
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
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Ekphrastic
অন্যচিত্র
Definition:
Ekphrastic refers to a form of writing, mostly poetry, wherein the author describes another work of art, usually visual. It is used to convey the deeper symbolism of the corporeal art form by means of a separate medium. It has often been found that ekphrastic writing is rhetorical in nature and symbolic of a greater meaning.
Example:
A photograph of an empty landscape can convey desolation, abandon and loss. Similarly, one can convey the same sentiments and concepts by using phrases such as ‘an empty doorway’ or ‘a childless nursery’.
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Epilogue
সমাপ্তিকা; অন্তকথন
Definition:
Epilogues are an inherent part of any story or poem and are essential to the structure of any written form. The epilogue is an important literary tool that acts as the afterword once the last chapter is over. The purpose of an epilogue is to add a little insight to some interesting developments that happen once the major plot is over. Epilogues often act as a teaser trailer to any possible sequels that might be created later.
Sometimes the epilogue is used to add a little bit about the life or future of the main characters after the story itself has unfolded and wrapped up. Epilogues can be written in a number of ways: sometimes the same narrative style as adopted in the story is continued while at other times one of the characters might take up the narrative or speak one to one with the audience.
Example:
In a remarkably contemporary moment at the end of The Tempest, Shakespeare’s wizard Prospero addresses the audience directly, breaking down the boundaries of the play. He informs them that the play is over, his powers are gone, and thus his escape from the play’s island setting depends on their applause that they, in effect, get to decide his fate.
This serves as a Epilogue for Shakespeare’s tragicomedy The Tempest.
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Epithet
উপনাম; উপাধি
Definition:
An epithet is a literary device that is used as a descriptive device. It is usually used to add to a person or place’s regular name and attribute some special quality to the same. Epithets are remarkable in that they become a part of common parlance over time. These descriptive words and phrases can be used to enhance the persona of real and fictitious places, objects, persons and divinities.
Example:
“Alexander the Great” is the epithet commonly used to refer to Alexander III of Macedon. The young king has come to be recognized by this epithet in all of history and popular culture owing to his spectacular achievements in creating one of the largest ever historical empires.
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Euphemism
মৃদুবচন
Definition:
The term ‘euphemism’ is used to refer to the literary practice of using a comparatively milder or less abrasive form of a negative description instead of its original, unsympathetic form. This device is used when writing about matters such as sex, violence, death, crimes and things “embarrassing”. The purpose of euphemisms is to substitute unpleasant and severe words with more genteel ones in order to mask the harshness.. The use of euphemisms is sometimes manipulated to lend a touch of exaggeration or irony in satirical writing.
Examples:
Using “to put out to pasture” when one implies retiring a person because they are too old to be effective.
Downsizing – This is used when a company fires or lays off a larger number of employees
Friendly fire – This is used by the military when soldiers are accidentally killed by other soldiers on the same side.
Tipsy – This is a soft way to say that someone has had to much to drink.
Golden years – This is used to describe the later period of life when someone is of old age.
Gone to heaven – This is a polite way to say that someone is dead.
Enhanced interrogation – This is modern euphemism to minimize what by many people would be viewed as torture.
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Euphony
সুরেলা ভাষা; সুললিত বচন
Definition:
The literary device “euphony” refers to the use of phrases and words that are noted for possessing an extensive degree of notable loveliness or melody in the sound they create. The use of euphony is predominant in literary prose and poetry, where poetic devices such as alliteration, rhyme and assonance are used to create pleasant sounds. Euphony is the opposite of cacophony, which refers to the creation of unpleasant and harsh sounds by using certain words and phrases together. This literary device is based on the use and manipulation of phonetics in literature.
Example:
It has been said that the phrase “cellar door” is reportedly the most pleasant sounding phrase in the English language. The phrase is said to depict the highest degree of euphony, and is said to be especially notable when spoken in the British accent.
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Faulty Parallelism
ভুল/ভ্রমাত্মক সমান্তরাল
Definition:
In literature, the term ‘parallelism’ is used to refer to the practice placing together similarly structure related phrases, words or clauses. Parallelism involves placing sentence items in a parallel grammatical format wherein nouns are listed together, specific verb forms are listed together and the like. When one fails to follow this parallel structure, it results in faulty parallelism. The failure to maintain a balance in grammatical forms is known as faulty parallelism wherein similar grammatical forms receive dissimilar or unequal weight.
Example:
On the TV show The Simpsons, lead character Bart Simpson says, “they are laughing, not with me”.
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Flashback
অতীত দর্শন
Definition:
Flashback is a literary device wherein the author depicts the occurrence of specific events to the reader, which have taken place before the present time the narration is following, or events that have happened before the events that are currently unfolding in the story.
Flashback devices that are commonly used are past narratives by characters, depictions and references of dreams and memories and a sub device known as authorial sovereignty wherein the author directly chooses to refer to a past occurrence by bringing it up in a straightforward manner. Flashback is used to create a background to the present situation, place or person.
Example:
Back in the day when Sarah was a young girl…
You can see flashbacks used very often in movies. For example, it is common in movies for there to be a flashback that gives the viewer a look into the characters life when they were younger, or when they have done something previously. This is done to help the viewer better understand the present situation.
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Foil
বিপরীত গৌন চরিত্র
Definition:
A foil is another character in a story who contrasts with the main character, usually to highlight one of their attributes.
Example:
In the popular book series, Harry Potter, the character of Hogwarts principal Albus Dumbledore, who portrays ‘good’, is constantly shown to believe in the power of true love (of all forms and types) and is portrayed as a strong, benevolent and positive character while the antagonist Lord Voldemort, who depicts the evil and ‘bad’ in the series is constantly shown to mock and disbelieve the sentiment of love and think of it as a foolish indulgence, a trait that is finally his undoing.
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Foreshadowing
গল্পাভাস
Definition:
The literary device foreshadowing refers to the use of words or phrases that set the stage for the story to unfold. It gives the reader a hint of something that is going to happen without revealing the story or spoiling the suspense. Foreshadowing is used to suggest an upcoming outcome to the story.
Example:
“He had no idea of the disastrous chain of events to follow”. In this sentence, while the protagonist is clueless of further developments, the reader learns that something disastrous and problematic is about to happen to/for him.
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Hubris
অহমিকা; আত্মম্ভরিতা
Definition:
Hubris, in this day and age, is another way of saying overly arrogant. You can tell the difference of hubris and just regular arrogance or pride by the fact that the character has seemed to allow reality slip away from them. The character portraying hubris, also commonly referred to as hybris, may have just gained a huge amount of power and the false belief that they are “untouchable”.
The term hubris used to have a slightly different meaning and was a very negative subject back in ancient Greek. It used to be closely related to a crime in Athens. In writing and literature hubris is generally considered a “tragic flaw” and it is saved for the protagonist. The reason for this is because at the end of the story you should be able to see that it is this flaw that brings the “bad guy” down.
Example:
A classic example of hubris is featured in Shakespeare’s play Macbeth. Macbeth, the protagonist, overfilled with ambition and arrogance, allows his hubris to think you would be able to kill the valiant Duncan without penalty so he can claim the throne of Scotland for himself. Obviously murder is highly frowned upon, so this eventually leads to Macbeth’s demise as well.
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Hyperbaton
বক্র প্রকাশ; ঘোরানো-পেঁচানো কথা
Definition:
A hyperbaton is a literary device wherein the author plays with the regular positioning of words and phrases and creates a differently structured sentence to convey the same meaning. It is said that by using a hyperbaton, words or phrases overstep their conventional placements and result in a more complex and intriguing sentence structure. This literary device is used to add more depth and interest to the sentence structure.
Example:
“Alone he walked on the cold, lonely roads”. This sentence is a variation of the more conventional, “He walked alone on the cold, lonely roads”.
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Hyperbole
অতিরঞ্জন; উচ্চবোল; অতিশয়োক্তি
Definition:
A hyperbole is a literary device wherein the author uses specific words and phrases that exaggerate and overemphasize the basic crux of the statement in order to produce a grander, more noticeable effect. The purpose of hyperbole is to create a larger-than-life effect and overly stress a specific point. Such sentences usually convey an action or sentiment that is generally not practically/ realistically possible or plausible but helps emphasize an emotion.
Example:
“I am so tired I cannot walk another inch” or “I’m so sleepy I might fall asleep standing here”.
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Imagery
চিত্রকল্প; মানসচিত্র
Definition:
In literature, one of the strongest devices is imagery wherein the author uses words and phrases to create “mental images” for the reader. Imagery helps the reader to visualize more realistically the author’s writings. The usage of metaphors, allusions, descriptive words and similes amongst other literary forms in order to “tickle” and awaken the readers’ sensory perceptions is referred to as imagery. Imagery is not limited to only visual sensations, but also refers to igniting kinesthetic, olfactory, tactile, gustatory, thermal and auditory sensations as well.
Example:
The gushing brook stole its way down the lush green mountains, dotted with tiny flowers in a riot of colors and trees coming alive with gaily chirping birds.
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Internal Rhyme
মধ্যমিল
Definition:
In literature the internal rhyme is a practice of forming a rhyme in only one lone line of verse. An internal rhyme is also known as the middle rhyme because it is typically constructed in the middle of a line to rhyme with the bit at the end of the same metrical line.
Example:
The line from the famed poem Ancient Mariner, “We were the first that ever burst”.
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Inversion
উল্টোবিন্যাস; শব্দান্তর
Definition:
The term ‘inversion’ refers to the practice of changing the conventional placement of words. It is a literary practice typical of the older classical poetry genre. In present day literature it is usually used for the purpose of laying emphasis this literary device is more prevalent in poetry than prose because it helps to arrange the poem in a manner that catches the attention of the reader not only with its content but also with its physical appearance; a result of the peculiar structuring.
Example:
In the much known and read Paradise Lost, Milton wrote:
“Of Man’s First Disobedience, and the Fruit
Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal taste
Brought Death into the World, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat,
Sing Heav’nly Muse. . .”
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Irony
উল্টার্থ; বক্রোক্তি; বক্রাঘাত
Definition:
The use of irony in literature refers to playing around with words such that the meaning implied by a sentence or word is actually different from the literal meaning. Often irony is used to suggest the stark contrast of the literal meaning being put forth. The deeper, real layer of significance is revealed not by the words themselves but the situation and the context in which they are placed.
Example:
Writing a sentence such as, “Oh! What fine luck I have!”. The sentence on the surface conveys that the speaker is happy with their luck but actually what they mean is that they are extremely unhappy and dissatisfied with their (bad) luck.
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Juxtaposition
সহাবস্থান
Definition:
Juxtaposition is a literary device wherein the author places a person, concept, place, idea or theme parallel to another. The purpose of juxtaposing two directly or indirectly related entities close together in literature is to highlight the contrast between the two and compare them. This literary device is usually used for etching out a character in detail, creating suspense or lending a rhetorical effect.
Example:
In Paradise Lost, Milton has used juxtaposition to draw a parallel between the two protagonists, Satan and God, who he discusses by placing their traits in comparison with one another to highlight their differences.
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Kennings
ভিন্ন প্রকাশ
Definition:
The use of kennings in literature is characteristically related to works in Old English poetry where the author would use a twist of words, figure of speech or magic poetic phrase or a newly created compound sentence or phrase to refer to a person, object, place, action or idea. The use of imagery and indicative, direct and indirect references to substitute the proper, formal name of the subject is known as kennings. The use of kennings was also prevalent in Old Norse and Germanic poetry.
Example:
Kennings are rare in modern day language. Here are a few examples from Beowulf:
Battle-sweat = blood
Sky-candle = sun
Whale-road = ocean
Light-of-battle = sword
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Litotes
লঘুক্তি; নেতিবাচন
Definition:
Litotes are figures of rhetoric speech that use an understated statement of an affirmative by using a negative description. Rarely talked about, but commonly used in modern day conversations, litotes are a discreet way of saying something unpleasant without directly using negativity.
Sometimes called an ironical understatement and/or an avoidance of a truth which can be either positive or negative. Common examples: “I’m not feeling bad,” or “he’s definitely not a rocket scientist.” The actual meanings are: “I am feeling well,” and “he is not smart.” Litotes were used frequently in Old English Poetry and Literature, and can be found in the English, Russian, German, Dutch and French languages.
Example:
In everyday conversations in the 21st century, one may hear expressions like:
“not the brightest bulb”
“not a beauty”
“not bad”
“not unfamiliar”
These are all examples of negative litotes that mean the opposite: “a dim bulb, or dumb,” “plain in appearance,” “good,” and “knows very well.” Perhaps our society is not trying to be humorous or sarcastic, but kinder?
Sometimes double negatives in literature, music and films create a litote that was not intended; for instance in the Rolling Stones hit “I Can’t Get No Satisfaction,” actually means “I CAN receive satisfaction.”
Perhaps some best description litotes are found in the bible: take for instance, Jeremiah 30:19:
“I will multiply them, and they shall not be few; I will make them honored, and they shall not be small.” Correctly interpreted, he is saying “there will be many and they will be great or large.”
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Malapropism
বাকবিচ্যুতি
Definition:
Malapropism in literature refers to the practice of misusing words by substituting words with similar sounding words that have different, often unconnected meanings, and thus creating a situation of confusion, misunderstanding and amusement.
Malapropism is used to convey that the speaker or character is flustered, bothered, unaware or confused and as a result cannot employ proper diction. A trick to using malapropism is to ensure that the two words (the original and the substitute) sound similar enough for the reader to catch onto the intended switch and find humor in the result.
Example:
In the play Much Ado About Nothing, noted playwright William Shakespeare’s character Dogberry says, “Our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two auspicious persons.” Instead, what the character means to say is “”Our watch, sir, have indeed apprehended two suspicious persons.”
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Metaphor
রূপক; শব্দালংকার
Definition:
Metaphors are one of the most extensively used literary devices. A metaphor refers to a meaning or identity ascribed to one subject by way of another. In a metaphor, one subject is implied to be another so as to draw a comparison between their similarities and shared traits.
The first subject, which is the focus of the sentences is usually compared to the second subject, which is used to convey a degree of meaning that is used to characterize the first. The purpose of using a metaphor is to take an identity or concept that we understand clearly (second subject) and use it to better understand the lesser known element (the first subject).
Example:
“Henry was a lion on the battlefield”. This sentence suggests that Henry fought so valiantly and bravely that he embodied all the personality traits we attribute to the ferocious animal. This sentence implies immediately that Henry was courageous and fearless, much like the King of the Jungle.
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Metonymy
প্রতিনাম; উপনাম
Definition:
Metonymy in literature refers to the practice of not using the formal word for an object or subject and instead referring to it by using another word that is intricately linked to the formal name or word. It is the practice of substituting the main word with a word that is closely linked to it.
Example:
When we use the name “Washington D.C” we are talking about the U.S’ political hot seat by referring to the political capital of the United States because all the significant political institutions such as the White House, Supreme Court, the U.S. Capitol and many more are located her. The phrase “Washington D.C.” is metonymy for the government of the U.S. in this case.
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Mood
মেজাজ; ভাব
Definition:
The literary device ‘mood’ refers to a definitive stance the author adopts in shaping a specific emotional perspective towards the subject of the literary work. It refers to the mental and emotional disposition of the author towards the subject, which in turn lends a particular character or atmosphere to the work. The final tone achieved thus is instrumental in evoking specific, appropriate responses from the reader.
Example:
In Erich Segal’s Love Story, the relationship of the two protagonists is handled with such beauty, delicateness and sensitivity that the reader is compelled to feel the trials and tribulations of the characters.
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Motif
পুনরাবর্তিত উপাদান
Definition:
The literary device ‘motif’ is any element, subject, idea or concept that is constantly present through the entire body of literature. Using a motif refers to the repetition of a specific theme dominating the literary work. Motifs are very noticeable and play a significant role in defining the nature of the story, the course of events and the very fabric of the literary piece.
Example:
In many famed fairy tales, the motif of a ‘handsome prince’ falling in love with a ‘damsel in distress’ and the two being bothered by a wicked step mother, evil witch or beast and finally conquering all to live ‘happily ever after’ is a common motif.
Another common motif is the simple, pretty peasant girl or girl from a modest background in fairy tales discovering that she is actually a royal or noble by the end of the tale.
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Negative Capability
নেতিবাচক সক্ষমতা
Definition:
The use of negative capability in literature is a concept promoted by poet John Keats, who was of the opinion that literary achievers, especially poets, should be able to come to terms with the fact that some matters might have to be left unsolved and uncertain. Keats was of the opinion that some certainties were best left open to imagination and that the element of doubt and ambiguity added romanticism and specialty to a concept.
Example:
The best references of the use of negative capability in literature would be of Keats’ own works, especially poems such as Ode on a Grecian Urn and Ode to a Nightingale.
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Nemesis
ন্যায় প্রতিষ্ঠা
Definition:
In literature, the use of a nemesis refers to a situation of poetic justice wherein the positive characters are rewarded and the negative characters are penalized. The word also sometimes refers to the character or medium by which this justice is brought about as Nemesis was the patron goddess of vengeance according to classical mythology.
Example:
In the popular book series Harry Potter, the protagonist Harry Potter is the nemesis of the evil Lord Voldemort.
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Onomatopoeia
বাস্তবানুকার
Definition:
The term ‘onomatopoeia’ refers to words whose very sound is very close to the sound they are meant to depict. In other words, it refers to sound words whose pronunciation to the actual sound they represent.
Example:
Words such as grunt, huff, buzz and snap are words whose pronunciation sounds very similar to the actual sounds these words represent. In literature such words are useful in creating a stronger mental image. For instance, sentences such as “the whispering of the forest trees” or “the hum of a thousand bees” or “the click of the door in the nighttime” create vivid mental images.
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Oxymoron
বিপরীত সহাবস্থান
Definition:
Oxymoron is a significant literary device as it allows the author to use contradictory, contrasting concepts placed together in a manner that actually ends up making sense in a strange, and slightly complex manner. An oxymoron is an interesting literary device because it helps to perceive a deeper level of truth and explore different layers of semantics while writing.
Example:
Sometimes we cherish things of little value.
He possessed a cold fire in his eyes.
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Paradox
কূটাভাস
Definition:
A paradox in literature refers to the use of concepts or ideas that are contradictory to one another, yet, when placed together hold significant value on several levels. The uniqueness of paradoxes lies in the fact that a deeper level of meaning and significance is not revealed at first glance, but when it does crystallize, it provides astonishing insight.
Example:
High walls make not a palace; full coffers make not a king.
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Pathetic Fallacy
ব্যক্তিবৈশিষ্ট্য আরোপ
Definition:
Pathetic fallacy is a type of literary device whereby the author ascribes the human feelings of one or more of his or her characters to nonhuman objects or nature or phenomena. It is a type of personification, and is known to occur more by accident and less on purpose.
Example:
The softly whistling teapot informed him it was time for breakfast.
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Periodic Structure
বাক্যবিকার
Definition:
In literature, the concept of a periodic structure refers to a particular placement of sentence elements such as the main clause of the sentence and/or its predicate are purposely held off and placed at the end instead of at the beginning or their conventional positions. In such placements, the crux of the sentence’s meaning does not become clear to the reader until they reach the last part. While undeniably confusing at first, a periodic structure lends a flair of drama and romanticism to a sentence and is greatly used in poetry.
Example:
Instead of writing, “brokenhearted and forlorn she waited till the end of her days for his return” one may write, “for his return, brokenhearted and forlorn, waited she till the end of her days”.
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Periphrasis
শব্দাড়ম্বর
Definition:
The term ‘periphrasis’ refers to the use of excessive language and surplus words to convey a meaning that could otherwise be conveyed with fewer words and in more direct a manner. The use of this literary device can be to embellish a sentence, to create a grander effect, to beat around the bush and to draw attention away from the crux of the message being conveyed.
Example:
Instead of simply saying “I am displeased with your behavior”, one can say, “the manner in which you have conducted yourself in my presence of late has caused me to feel uncomfortable and has resulted in my feeling disgruntled and disappointed with you”.
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Personification
মানবায়ন; ব্যক্তিত্বারোপ
Definition:
Personification is one of the most commonly used and recognized literary devices. It refers to the practice of attaching human traits and characteristics with inanimate objects, phenomena and animals.
Example:
“The raging winds”
“The wise owl”
“The warm and comforting fire”
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Plot
কাহিনি; ঘটনাক্রম
Definition:
The plot usually refers to the sequence of events and happenings that make up a story. There is usually a pattern, unintended or intentional, that threads the plot together. The plot basically refers to the main outcome and order of the story. There is another kind of plot in literature as well; it refers to the conflict or clash occurring as a part of the story. The conflict usually follows 3 regular formats: a) characters in conflict with one another b) characters in conflict with their surroundings and c) characters in conflict with themselves.
Example:
Many date movies follow a similar simple plot. Boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy wins girl back in the end.
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Point of View
দৃষ্টিকোণ; বয়ানপুরুষ
Definition:
Point of view is the manner in which a story is narrated or depicted and who it is that tells the story. Simply put, the point of view determines the angle and perception of the story unfolding, and thus influences the tone in which the story takes place. The point of view is instrumental in manipulating the reader’s understanding of the narrative. In a way, the point of view can allow or withhold the reader access into the greater reaches of the story.
Two of the most common point of view techniques are the first person, wherein the story is told by the narrator from his or her standpoint and the third person wherein the narrator does not figure in the events of the story and tells the story by referring to all characters and places in the third person with third person pronouns and proper nouns.
Example:
In the popular Lord of the Rings book series, the stories are narrated in the third person and all happenings are described from an “outside the story” point of view. Contrastingly, in the popular teen book series, Princess Diaries, the story is told in the first person, by the protagonist herself.
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Polysyndeton
অতিসংযোজন
Definition:
Polysyndeton refers to the process of using conjunctions or connecting words frequently in a sentence, placed very close to one another. Opposed to the usual norm of using them sparsely, only where they are technically needed. The use of polysyndetons is primarily for adding dramatic effect as they have a strong rhetorical presence.
Example:
a) Saying “here and there and everywhere”, instead of simply saying “here, there and everywhere”.
b) “Marge and Susan and Anne and Daisy and Barry all planned to go for a picnic”, instead of “Marge, Susan, Anne, Daisy and Barry…” emphasizes each of the individuals and calls attention to every person one by one instead of assembling them as a group.
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Portmanteau
শব্দমিশ্র
Definition:
In literature, this device refers to the practice of joining together two or more words in order to create an entirely new word. This is often done in order to create a name or word for something by combining the individual characteristics of 2 or more other words.
Example:
1. The word “smog” is a portmanteau that was built combining “fog” and “smoke” and “smog” has the properties of both fog and smoke.
2. Liger= Lion + Tiger= A hybrid of the two feline species, possessing characteristics of both.
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Prologue
উপক্রমনিকা; প্রাককথন
Definition:
A prologue can be understood to be a sort of introduction to a story that usually sets the tone for the story and acts as a bit of a backgrounder or a “sneak peek” into the story. Prologues are typically a narrative ‘spoken’ by one of the characters and not from the part of the author.
Example:
1. “The origin of this story is…”
2. “It all began one day when…”
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Pun
শব্দকৌতুক; দ্ব্যর্থবাক
Definition:
Puns are a very popular literary device wherein a word is used in a manner to suggest two or more possible meanings. This is generally done to the effect of creating humor or irony or wryness. Puns can also refer to words that suggest meanings of similar-sounding words. The trick is to make the reader have an “ah!” moment and discover 2 or more meanings.
Example:
Santa’s helpers are known as subordinate Clauses.
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Rhyme Scheme
অন্তমিল বিন্যাস
Definition:
The rhyme scheme is the practice of rhyming words placed at the end of the lines in the prose or poetry. Rhyme scheme refers to the order in which particular words rhyme. If the alternate words rhyme, it is an “a-b-a-b” rhyme scheme, which means “a” is the rhyme for the lines 1 and 3 and “b” is the rhyme affected in the lines 2 and 4.
Example:
Roses are red (a)
Violets are blue (b)
Beautiful they all may be (c)
But I love you (b)
The above is an “a-b-c-b” rhyme scheme.
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Rhythm & Rhyme
ছন্দমিল
Definition:
The concept of ‘rhythm and rhyme’ refers to a pattern of rhymes that is created by using words that produce the same, or similar sounds. Rhythm and rhyme together refer to the recurrence of similar sounds in prose and poetry, creating a musical, gentle effect.
Example:
“I am a teapot
Short and stout;
This is my handle
And this is my spout.
When the water’s boiling
Hear me shout;
Just lift me up
And pour me out”
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Satire
প্রহসন; ব্যঙ্গ
Definition:
The use of satire in literature refers to the practice of making fun of a human weakness or character flaw. The use of satire is often inclusive of a need or decision of correcting or bettering the character that is on the receiving end of the satire. In general, even though satire might be humorous and may “make fun”, its purpose is not to entertain and amuse but actually to derive a reaction of contempt from the reader.
Example:
An example of satire in modern pop culture is the TV series Southpark that uses satire as it primary medium for drawing attention the flaws in society, especially American society at present. The scripts and writing for the show are an excellent example of satire in written form.
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Setting
কাহিনির স্থানকাল
Definition:
In literature, the word ‘setting’ is used to identify and establish the time, place and mood of the events of the story. It basically helps in establishing where and when and under what circumstances the story is taking place.
Example:
In the first installment of the Harry Potter series, a large part of the book takes place at the protagonist, Harry’s, aunt’s and uncle’s place, living in the “muggle” (non-magical) world with the “muggle” folks, and Harry is unaware of his magical capabilities and blood. This setting establishes the background that Harry has a non-magical childhood with other “muggle” people and has no clue about his special powers or his parents and is raised much like, actually worse than, regular people, till his 11th birthday.
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Simile
প্রত্যক্ষ তুলনা
Definition:
Similes are one of the most commonly used literary devices; referring to the practice of drawing parallels or comparisons between two unrelated and dissimilar things, people, beings, places and concepts. By using similes a greater degree of meaning and understanding is attached to an otherwise simple sentence. The reader is able to better understand the sentiment the author wishes to convey. Similes are marked by the use of the words ‘as’ or ‘such as’ or ‘like’.
Example:
He is like a mouse in front of the teacher.
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Spoonerism
ধ্বনিবিচ্যুতি
Definition:
Spoonerism refers to the practice of interchanging the first letters of some words in order to create new words or even to create nonsensical words in order to create a humorous setting. While they are often unintentional and known as a “slip of the tongue”, in literature they are welcomed as witty wordplay.
Example:
The phrase “flesh and blood” being spoken as a character as “blesh and flood” in urgency and heightened emotion.
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Stanza
স্তবক
Definition:
The term stanza refers to a single, related chunk of lines in poetry. It basically refers to one unit or group of lines, which forms one particular faction in poetry. The most basic kind of stanza is usually 4 lines per group, with the simplest rhyme scheme “a-b-a-b” being followed.
Example:
“The greedy paddy cat,
Chased after the mice;
She got so round and fat,
But it tasted so nice”
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Stream of Consciousness
চেতনাপ্রবাহ
Definition:
The phrase ‘stream of consciousness’ refers to an uninterrupted and unhindered collection and occurrence of thoughts and ideas in the conscious mind. In literature, the phrase refers to the flow of these thoughts, with reference to a particular character’s thinking process. This literary device is usually used in order to provide a narrative in the form of the character’s thoughts instead of using dialogue or description.
Example:
All writings by Virginia Woolf are a good example of literary stream of consciousness.
“Life is not a series of gig lamps symmetrically arranged; life is a luminous halo, a semi-transparent envelope surrounding us from the beginning of consciousness to the end.” The Common Reader (1925)
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Suspense
উত্তেজনা
Definition:
Suspense is the intense feeling that an audience goes through while waiting for the outcome of certain events. It basically leaves the reader holding their breath and wanting more information. The amount of intensity in a suspenseful moment is why it is hard to put a book down. Without suspense, a reader would lose interest quickly in any story because there is nothing that is making the reader ask, “What’s going to happen next?” In writing, there has to be a series of events that leads to a climax that captivates the audience and makes them tense and anxious to know what is going to happen.
Example:
A cliffhanger is a great way to create suspense. You remember when you were a kid and very excited to watch those Saturday morning shows. You can probably recall the feeling you had at the pit of your stomach when, after about 25 minutes and lots of commercials, you were hoping to find out what happened to your favorite character. However, you didn’t get to find out. Instead they would make the “Tune In Next Week” announcement and you already knew that you would be there. Same time, same place. Suspense is a powerful literary tool because, if done correctly, you know your audience will be back for more and more.
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Symbol
প্রতীক
Definition:
A symbol is literary device that contains several layers of meaning, often concealed at first sight, and is representative of several other aspects, concepts or traits than those that are visible in the literal translation alone. Symbol is using an object or action that means something more than its literal meaning.
Example:
The phrase “a new dawn” does not talk only about the actual beginning of a new day but also signifies a new start, a fresh chance to begin and the end of a previous tiring time.
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Synecdoche
অংশপ্রতীক
Definition:
A synecdoche is a literary devices that uses a part of something to refer to the whole or vice versa. It is somewhat rhetorical in nature, where the entire object is represented by way of a fraction of it or a fraction of the object is symbolized by the whole.
Example:
“Weary feet in the walk of life”, does not refer to the feet actually being tired or painful; it is symbolic of a long, hard struggle through the journey of life and feeling low, tired, unoptimistic and ‘the walk of life’ does not represent an actual path or distance covered, instead refers to the entire sequence of life events that has made the person tired.
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Synesthesia
যৌগইন্দ্রিয়
Definition:
While the term synesthesia literally refers to a medical condition wherein one or many of the sensory modalities become joined to one another, in literature it refers to the depiction of a strong connection, link or bond between the different senses. Characters in literature are sometimes described to be experiences synesthesia. Synesthesia is the conflation of the senses.
Example:
The Sound of Blue by Hollu Payne which portrays synesthesia with respect to the Romantic ideal.
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Syntax
বাক্যগঠন
Definition:
Syntax in literature refers to the way in which words and sentences are placed together. Usually in the English language the syntax should follow a pattern of subject-verb-object agreement but sometimes authors play around with this to achieve a lyrical, rhythmic, rhetoric or questioning effect. It is not related to the act of choosing specific words or even the meaning of each word or the overall meanings conveyed by the sentences.
Example:
The sentence “The man drives the car” would follow normal syntax in the English language. By changing the syntax to “The car drives the man”, the sentence becomes awkward.
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Theme
বিষয়বস্তু
Definition:
The theme of any literary work is the base that acts as a foundation for the entire literary piece. The theme links all aspects of the literary work with one another and is basically the main subject. The theme can be an enduring pattern or motif throughout the literary work, occurring in a complex, long winding manner or it can be short and succinct and provide a certain insight into the story.
Example:
The main theme in the play Romeo and Juliet was love with smaller themes of sacrifice, tragedy, struggle, hardship, devotion and so on.
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Tone
দৃষ্টিভঙ্গি; অনুভূতি
Definition:
The tone of a literary work is the perspective or attitude that the author adopts with regards to a specific character, place or development. Tone can portray a variety of emotions ranging from solemn, grave, and critical to witty, wry and humorous. Tone helps the reader ascertain the writer’s feelings towards a particular topic and this in turn influences the reader’s understanding of the story.
Example:
In her Harry Potter series, author J.K. Rowling has taken an extremely positive, inspiring and uplifting tone towards the idea of love and devotion.
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Tragedy
বিয়োগাত্মক সাহিত্যকর্ম
Definition:
In literature, the concept of tragedy refer to a series of unfortunate events by which one or more of the literary characters in the story undergo several misfortunes, which finally culminate into a disaster of ‘epic proportions’. Tragedy is generally built up in 5 stages: a) happy times b) the introduction of a problem c) the problem worsens to a crisis or dilemma d) the characters are unable to prevent the problem from taking over e) the problem results in some catastrophic, grave ending, which is the tragedy culminated.
Example:
In the play Julius Caesar, the lead character is an ambitious, fearless and power hungry king who ignores all the signs and does not heed the advice of the well-meaning: finally being stabbed to death by his own best friend and advisor Brutus. This moment has been immortalized by the phrase “Et tu Brute?”, wherein Caesar realizes that he has finally been defeated, and that too through betrayal.
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Understatement
অধবর্ণন; স্বল্পকথন
Definition:
This literary device refers to the practice of drawing attention to a fact that is already obvious and noticeable. Understating a fact is usually done by way of sarcasm, irony, wryness or any other form of dry humor. Understating something is akin to exaggerating its obviousness as a means of humor.
Example:
The phrase, “Oh! I wonder if he could get any later; I am free all day long”. Said in a sarcastic tone it indicates that the speaker obviously means the opposite of the literal meaning.
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Verisimilitude
সত্যপ্রতীতি
Definition:
Verisimilitude tends to be based around the appearance or proximity to being real, or the truth. It was a large part of the work of Karl Popper, and can be used in a variety of different ways to describe something, as well. It is a way of implying the believability or likelihood of a theory or narrative. However, just because something can be described as having Verisimilitude does not mean that it is true, only that merely appears to or seems to be true.
Example:
It can be used in a variety of ways, for example;
“While some dislike the content of the novel due to its graphic nature, you cannot deny that the content certainly gives the book some Verisimilitude”
An example of Verisimilitude in concept, though, could be a doubtful statement in a court of law or even a false testimonial for a restaurant. If something “seems” like it’s all well and good, but you can’t quite decide, then it can be said to have Verisimilitude.
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Verse
পদ্য
Definition:
The literary term ‘verse’ is used to refer to any single, lone line of a poetry composition. A metrical writing line is known as verse. The word can however, also refer to a stanza or any other part of the poetry.
Example:
A single line or stanza in a poem would be an example of verse.
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Action
মারদাঙ্গা; কর্মকাণ্ড
What is Action?
Also called “action-adventure,” action is a genre of film, TV, literature, etc., in which the primary feature is the constant slam-bang of fights, chases, explosions, and clever one-liners. Action stories typically do not explore complex relationships between human beings or the subtleties of psychology and philosophy. Instead, they are high-octane thrillers that simply aim to give the reader an exciting ride. (The word “thriller” is synonymous with “action” in this context.)
The Importance of Action:
Action stories work because they’re fun. People enjoy watching/reading them, even if they are not mentally stimulated by the genre. As for what makes action stories so popular, that’s tough to answer. On one level, the sheer simplicity of action stories may account for their popularity. Action stories are very easy to understand, and they work with themes that every human being can easily understand.
On another level, action stories get a lot of their power from archetypes, mythical figures that are common to all cultures and seem to be hard-wired into the human psyche. Every culture produces stories about heroes, monster-slayers, demons, mentors, temptresses, etc., and action stories frequently draw on this deep well of cultural ideas.
Examples of Action in Literature:
Example 1
Beowulf is a great work of literature and extremely important in the history of Old English, but it definitely has elements of an action story. The main archetype is Beowulf himself – the heroic monster-slayer who swims all the way to Denmark to try his hand at killing the monster Grendel. Over the course of the story, Beowulf fights tougher and tougher enemies until he finally has to face the great fire dragon.
Example 2
If you want to learn how to write effective fight scenes, The Golden Compass is a great book to start with. The final duel between the Panserbjorne is an extended fight that has a beginning-middle-end structure, along with changes in pace and repeated use of a wide variety of literary devices.
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Adage
সুবচন
The adage expresses a well-known and simple truth in a few words. Adages are also known as a proverbs or aphorisms.
Adages are brief statements which reflect commonly-held philosophical beliefs in a society. Because an adage has been passed down over time, it serves as a symbol of collected and accepted wisdom. For example, Eat, drink, and be merry reflects a society which also values fun and enjoyment. Stupid is as stupid does reflects the belief that we are our actions: a supposedly intelligent person acting stupidly is not truly intelligent. Adages provide us with simple guidelines with which to live. In literature, adages are a sign of wisdom and of a work’s universal appeal and truth.
Example 1:
For example, here are a few from Benjamin Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanac:
There are no pains without gains.
Have you something to do tomorrow? Do it today.
What you would seem to be, be really.
Over time, these adages have found their modern forms in phrases like the athlete’s mantra “No pain, no gain!” Nike’s Just Do It slogan, and the advice we all give one another: Just be yourself.
Example 2:
For a second example, here are a few adages from Aesop’s Fables.
From Beekeeper and the Bees: Things are not always what they seem.
From Dog and His Reflection: Be content with what you have.
From Man and His Sons: United we stand, divided we fall.
Aesop’s Fables are a source of numerous adages which have made it a classic treasury read to children in order to pass down simple stories with simple lessons of how to live well.
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Ambiguity
দ্ব্যর্থকতা
Ambiguity is an idea or situation that can be understood in more than one way. This extends from ambiguous sentences (which could mean one thing or another) up to ambiguous storylines and ambiguous arguments. It’s often viewed in a negative light, since we value clarity in writing and ambiguity is the opposite of clarity; however, sometimes ambiguity can be a good thing, especially in poetry and storytelling.
Ambiguity is similar to “vagueness,” except that ambiguity refers to something having multiple possible meanings, while vagueness refers to a general lack of clarity; something vague might not have any clear meanings while something ambiguous might have several possible clear meanings.
Example 1:
I went out in the woods and found a bat.
Was it a little furry winged creature? Or a baseball bat? Because the word “bat” is polysemous, it provides us with a very simple example of semantic ambiguity.
Example 2:
“The word good has many meanings. For example, if a man were to shoot his grandmother at a range of five hundred yards, I should call him a good shot, but not necessarily a good man.” (G.K. Chesterton)
This quote explores the polysemy of the word “good.” If you simply said, “Wow, he’s really good” without any context, a reader couldn’t know which sense of “good” you meant; it would be ambiguous.
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Anachronism
কালবিপর্যয়
Anachronism is a Greek word meaning “backward time.” It’s what happens when an author, deliberately or accidentally, puts historical events, fashions, technology, etc., in the wrong place. This could include simple things like a historical film putting the wrong type of weapon in the hands of the soldiers, or it could be extreme inaccuracies such as having cavemen fight dinosaurs. The point is that the story shows something happening at a time when it would be impossible, or at least extremely unlikely, for that thing to happen.
Example 1:
When you think of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table, you probably imagine a group of knights in plate armor, wielding broadswords and large shields. However, this is an anachronism: full plate armor was not used until at least the 13th century AD, hundreds of years after King Arthur died (around 550 AD). The real King Arthur probably wore chain mail or hardened leather armor, and lived in an earth-and-wood fort instead of a stone castle.
Example 2:
William Shakespeare sometimes used anachronisms deliberately in his plays about the ancient world. He has Cleopatra play billiards, for example, a game that didn’t exist until over 1,000 years after her death. Shakespeare did this because he wanted his plays to be staged as though the events were happening in his own day, much the way we might do with a “modernized” version of old stories. (Imagine, for example, a “Shakespeare” biopic in which the bard is sitting in a café in Brooklyn, typing out Macbeth on his laptop. This would be a deliberate anachronism, since everyone knows Shakespeare never owned a computer.)
Example 3:
Anachronisms can be found even in ancient literature. For example, Virgil’s Aeneid (written around the year 20 BC) begins with the events of the Trojan War. In the aftermath of the war, as Troy burns, the hero flees to Carthage. However, Troy was sacked some time around 1200 BC, and Carthage was not founded until about 200-400 years later.
Example 4:
Several critics have raised concerns about anachronisms in the Bible, for example the presence of camels at the time of Abraham. Current archaeological evidence suggests that camels did not appear in the Holy Land until around 1,000 BC, several centuries after Abraham is believed to have died. To most Christians and Jews, of course, such anachronisms do not matter – the minute details of the Bible are not as important to them as its spiritual and ethical message.
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Anthimeria
পদবিপর্যয়
Anthimeria (also known as antimeria) is the usage of a word in a new grammatical form, most often the usage of a noun as a verb. Anthimeria is often used in everyday conversation as a form of slang.
Example 1:
I could use a good sleep.
Here, the word “sleep,” usually a verb, is used as a noun.
Example 2:
She headed the ball.
In soccer, “heading” the ball is to hit the ball with one’s forehead.
Example 3:
Don’t forget to hashtag that post.
This is a recent form of anthimeria, as “hashtagging” and “hashtag” have only just recently been added to the lexicon with popular social networking sites like Twitter and Instagram.
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Aphorismus
প্রশ্ন মতানৈক্য
Aphorismus is a term in which the speaker questions whether a word is being used correctly to show disagreement. Aphorismus is often written as a rhetorical question such as “How can you call this music?”to show the difference between the usual meaning of a word and how it is being used. So, the point is to call attention to the qualities of the word, suggesting that how it is being used is not a good example of the word. In the example, the speaker is questioning whether the music heard is a good example of the word “music.”
The word aphorismus originates from the Greek phrase aphorismós meaning “rejection” or “a marking off.” Aphorismus can be used in both everyday conversation and literature. It can be used in literature in all forms including poetry, prose, and speech-writing.
Aphorismus is used to raise questions or disagree about a subject or situation without directly expressing specific concerns. Instead of directly disagreeing, you remind your listener of the definition of a word and point out that the thing you’re disagreeing with does not fit the definition. Aphorismus can be used to insult or question something in a more playful and less direct way than an insult or factual statement such as “This music is horrible.” Whereas insults and facts may be accepted or ignored, aphorismus requires the listeners to consider the definition of the subject, and then ask themselves whether the subject fits. Aphorismus requires some critical thinking from the audience, inviting them to interact with the speaker.
Example 1:
A woman is wearing a dress which is ripped, cut short, and white. She hopes to wear it for her wedding. A response using aphorismus would be:
You call that a wedding dress? It’s not appropriate at all!
Because wedding dresses are usually beautiful and elegant, this use of aphorismus challenges whether the dress being used is appropriate.
Example 2:
A man is crying over a coffee stain on his dress shirt. A response to his behavior using aphorismus would be:
How can you call yourself a man? Crying over a tiny stain!
By questioning the man, this example points out that crying over something trivial is not a good example or behavior of a “man.”
Example 3:
One of the most classic examples of aphorismus is found in Shakespeare’s Richard II:
For you have but mistook me all this while.
I live with bread like you, feel want,
taste grief, need friends; subjected thus,
How can you say to me I am a king?
Here, the king questions his own kingliness. By expressing that he experiences hunger, desire, grief, and loneliness like all people, he levels himself with all people.
Example 4:
For another example of aphorismus, read this excerpt from Truman Capote’s novella Breakfast at Tiffany’s:
You call yourself a free spirit, a “wild thing,” and you’re terrified somebody’s gonna stick you in a cage. Well baby, you’re already in that cage. You built it yourself. And it’s not bounded in the west by Tulip, Texas, or in the east by Somali-land. It’s wherever you go. Because no matter where you run, you just end up running into yourself.
Here, Fred Varjak challenges Holly Golightly about her own definition of self. The aphorismus targets her claim that she is a free spirit or wild thing. Following the aphorismus, Varjak clarifies that Golightly is not really free, but actually in a self-built cage where she avoids her true self.
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Apologue
উপগল্প; উপদেশমূলক কেচ্ছা
An apologue is a short story or fable which provides a simple moral lesson. Apologues are often told through the use of animal characters with symbolical elements. The word apologue (pronounced ap–uh-lawg, -log) is derived from the Greek phrase apologos, meaning “narrative.” Apologues are prominent stories in children’s bedtime books. Apologues are prominent pieces of literature, as Aesop’s fables are still widely read today. More modern versions with the same ideas are still being written today.
Apologues provide a moral lesson in a concise and enjoyable way which appeals to children. They quickly and convincingly convey a moral lesson. Because of this, apologues are considered rhetorical devices that serve to convince and persuade listeners to view a certain problem as having a specific solution or to view certain actions as immoral or moral, dangerous or safe, and intelligent or unintelligent. Apologues are teaching tools for parents and their young readers.
Example 1:
The Story of the Tortoise and the Hare
The tortoise and hare were in a race, and the hare was winning by a large margin. The tortoise, though, wins when the hare becomes cocky and takes a nap. The moral is “Slow and steady wins the race.”
Example 2:
The Lion and the Mouse
The mouse promised to do something for the lion if he did not eat him. Later, the mouse saved him by chewing through ropes of a trap. The moral is “Little friends may become great friends.”
Example 3:
The Ants and the Grasshopper
The ants work hard to save food for winter while the grasshopper plays. When winter comes, the grasshopper begs the ants for food. The moral is “To work today is to eat tomorrow.”
Example 4:
Aesop’s “The Dog and the Shadow”
A dog, crossing a bridge over a stream with a piece of flesh in
his mouth, saw his own shadow in the water and took it for that
of another dog, with a piece of meat double his own in size. He
immediately let go of his own, and fiercely attacked the other
dog to get his larger piece from him. He thus lost both: that
which he grasped at in the water, because it was a shadow; and
his own, because the stream swept it away.
The moral was “Grasp at the shadow and lose the substance.”
Example 5:
George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”
I trust that every animal here appreciates the sacrifice that Comrade Napoleon has made in taking this extra labour upon himself. Do not imagine, comrades, that leadership is a pleasure! On the contrary, it is a deep and heavy responsibility. No one believes more firmly than Comrade Napoleon that all animals are equal. He would be only too happy to let you make your decisions for yourselves. But sometimes you might make the wrong decisions, comrades, and then where should we be?
In Animal Farm, the story of pigs serves as a moral warning about real-life issues in the Russian Revolution of 1917 with Stalin’s dictatorship.
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Aposiopesis
অসমাপ্ত বাক্যবিধি
Aposiopesis is when a sentence is purposefully left incomplete or cut off. It’s caused by an inability or unwillingness to continue speaking. This allows the ending to be filled in by the listener’s imagination. In order to show aposiopesis in a sentence, one may use the em dash (–) or ellipsis (…). Aposiopesis may be used to express speechlessness caused by great emotion or passion, such as rage, frustration, or fear. It may also be used to avoid speaking of certain topics or to direct an audience’s attention to a new subject. Aposiopesis is used in literature for dramatic effects. It can show that a character is overwhelmed with emotion. Or, it can allow the reader to fill in horrors or threats with their own imaginations. When characters pause due to strong emotion or searching for words, they appear more realistic and believable.The word aposiopesis is derived from the Greek phrase aposiōpaein, meaning “to become totally silent.”
Example 1
Aposiopesis type: audience-respecting
This type of aposiopesis does not to include details or thoughts which may be offensive or unpleasant to readers or listeners. For example, while discussing a court case in front of a jury, a lawyer may state:
After the suspect… Well, you’ve read the court documents. After the heinous crime was completed, the suspect fled the scene.
Example 2
Aposiopesis type: surprising
This type of aposiopesis does not give information that the audience wants or expects to receive. This gains the audience’s interest in the information that will later be revealed. For example, it is often used in newscasts:
On tonight’s newscast, we will begin to discover what happens when two animals become unlikely friends… More on this story on The Evening News at 8.
Example 3
Aposiopesis type: emotional
Similar to emphatic aposiopesis, emotive aposiopesis does not finish a sentence due to an emotional outburst. This type of aposiopesis does not finish an idea in order to express that it is beyond description. Imagine an angry man who is so angry he can’t even think of what he wants to do to express that anger:
I’m so angry, I could– I could–!
Example 4
Aposiopesis type: transition
Used mostly in speech-making, the transition aposiopesis ( or transitio-aposiopesis ) is used to make a transition from one subject to another. By removing the conclusion from one idea, the speaker immediately gains the listeners’ interest in the next section of the speech:
And, in conclusion… Well, enough of that. Let’s move on to the next point.
Example 5
An example of this may be found in Shakespeare’s King Lear. Lear is so upset he cannot think of proper punishment for his misbehaving daughters:
I will have revenges on you both
That all the world shall– I will do such things–
What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be
The terrors of the earth!
The use of aposiopesis here serves to show that Lear is so angry, he cannot speak clearly or think of specific threats.
Example 6
Similarly, Mark Twain’s Aunt Polly is overcome with emotion but is unable to complete her thought:
She looked perplexed for a moment, and then said, not fiercely, but still loud enough for the furniture to hear:
“‘Well, I lay if I get hold of you I’ll–‘
She did not finish, for by this time she was bending down and punching under the bed with the broom.
Aposiopesis has a wide range of uses, but is most common in literature. It is a way of reflecting that a character has become overwhelmed with emotion or passion.
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Archaism
পুরনো অপ্রচলিত শব্দ
An archaism is an old word or expression that is no longer used with its original meaning or is only used in specific studies or areas. The word archaism is derived from the Greek word archaïkós meaning “ancient.” Archaisms exist, naturally, because language is always changing through the years unless artificially held back. Shakespeare’s English–Elizabethan English—evolved into the many dialects of modern English. Archaisms are most important because they remain in use in certain limited fields of activity—especially law, government, and religion—the most conservative and traditional areas of activity in our world. But archaisms can also be used by anyone anytime in speech or writing, to create an atmosphere of antiquity, and also, to give one’s language a feeling of official-ness, royalty, or religious authority.
Example 1
This above all: to thine own self be true.
This often quoted line from Shakespeare’s Hamlet has an archaism—thine—as well as archaic sentence structure. The modern translation would be: This above all: be true to yourself.
Example 2
Do you bite your thumb at us, sir?
A modern response to this question would be, “Do I what?” This line is also from Shakespeare. The expression “to bite one’s thumb” at someone once meant to bite and flick one’s thumb towards someone, which was an offensive and insulting gesture.
Example 3
The language of lawyers and laws is filled with archaisms such as heretofore, hereunto, thereof, etc.
Often used in Shakespearean studies, this phrase may be translated to: The lady solemnly declares too much, I think.
This last example calls attention to the fact that although archaisms are not used much anymore, they are used. If a word or phrase is not used at all anymore, in any context, it is not an archaism; it is obsolete.
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Bathos
ভাবগম্ভীর থেকে হাস্যকর
an abrupt turn from the serious and poetic to the regular and silly
Bathos, when unintentional, shows how easily serious scenes and subjects can be undermined by poor writing as the serious tone turns into a ridiculous and hilarious tone. When intentional, it shows just how funny it is when such serious scenes are abruptly interrupted by unexpected and silly subjects or circumstances. Typically, serious moments are separated from comedic moments. When they are combined through bathos, the sudden change in tone surprises the audience with the unexpected comedic touch.
Example 1
Her hair was finely curled, her cheeks were lined with rouge, and her dress was a flowing green and blue which made her look rather like a tired, old peacock.
The previous sentence is an example of bathos: Rather than likening the woman to a beautiful bird, she is compared, surprisingly, to a tired, old peacock.
Example 2
He spent his final hour of life doing what he loved most: arguing with his wife.
Whereas the description of someone’s final hours is usually respectful and solemn, this one is surprisingly and unexpected humorous due to bathos.
Example 3
After training for the entire year and successfully running his first marathon, Ben was desperate, nearly insane, for a saturated fat-filled chocolate bar.
Expected needs would include water and food, but the urge for junk food is surprising in a star athlete.
Example 4
She urged her friend to reconsider her decision, as she could be making a huge mistake wearing a green, short dress rather than a long, red dress.
Serious, life-changing decisions usually do not concern wardrobe changes, but a sentence using bathos does.
Example 5
Alexander Pope, critic who coined the term bathos, uses the device in his poem The Rape of the Lock:
Not louder Shrieks to pitying Heav’n are cast,
When Husbands or when Lap-dogs breath their last.
Hilariously, Pope places lap-dogs and husbands on the same level for the sadness they cause when they die.
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Burlesque
রঙ্গব্যঙ্গ
Burlesque is a style in literature and drama that mocks or imitates a subject by representing it in an ironic or ludicrous way; resulting in comedy. It is a form of the literary genre, satire. The term “burlesque” originates from the Italian burla and later burlesco, meaning ridicule, mockery, or joke. Correspondingly, burlesque creates humor by ridiculing or mimicking serious works, genres, subjects, and/or authors in one of two ways: either by presenting significant subjects in an absurd or crude way, or by presenting insignificant subjects in a sophisticated way. As a literary and dramatic device, the term is often used interchangeably with parody, though a parody is actually type of burlesque.
Burlesque literature is much more than mere comedy and entertainment. It has been a major literary and dramatic technique for social activism and commentary for thousands of years; using humor to attract attention to serious and unresolved issues in society. Nowadays, the main purpose of burlesque literature and drama is generally entertainment and comedy, but it has historically been an important way of using humor to critique social issues.
Example 1
As mentioned above, burlesque works mimic the styles and subjects of other works in a humorous way. Take the classic cute love poem:
Roses are red,
Violets are blue,
Sugar is sweet,
And so are you!
A burlesque version of the poem, specifically a parody, would be:
Roses prick your fingers,
Violets make you sneeze,
Sugar fills your veins with fat,
It’s best you stick to peas!
First, the poem above mimics the style of the first poem in that it follows the same ABCB rhyme scheme. Second, it mimics the subject of the first poem by using the same words—roses, violets, sugar, and you. However, the second poem is funny because it highlights the negative elements of these things rather than the positive. Thus, by changing these words to funny alternatives, while keeping the same style, the second poem mocks the traditional love poem, making it a burlesque poem.
Example 2
Burlesque was made most popular during the Victorian era of literature. Jane Austen’s Northanger Abbey is a parody of gothic fiction, which was a very popular genre of literature for young Victorian women. The story follows Catherine Morland, a young woman with a vivid imagination, which is the author suggests is “caused” by her love of gothic novels. Austen is mocking the popular Victorian mentality that literature could cause fantastic, improper, and unrealistic ideas as a result of reading fiction. Northanger Abbey follows the style of gothic novel because Catherine experiences similar feelings and situations that a gothic heroine would face—fear, mystery, curiousity, danger—however it is a parody because nothing scary or mysterious ever actually happens to Catherine, she just has an active imagination. See the selection below:
Catherine’s blood ran cold with the horrid suggestions which naturally sprang from these words. Could it be possible? – Could Henry’s father? – And yet how many were the examples to justify even the blackest suspicions!
Here, the language is gothic in style—blood ran cold, horrid, blackest suspicions. However, after this, we learn that Catherine is just imagining nonsense—nothing out of the ordinary ever occurs throughout the novel. Catherine longs for mystery and adventure like her novels provide, so she imagines countless things to be evidence of conspiracy and horror, realizing after each time how silly she was being.
Example 3
Jonathan Swift is one of literature’s greatest satirists, and his essay A Modest Proposal is an excellent example of a burlesque work that critiques serious social issues, specifically those of 18th century Irish society, such as poverty and the way the rich treat and view the poor. In his essay he suggests several solutions to these problems—
I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least objection.
I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricasie, or a ragoust.
In this passage, Swift suggests that children make an excellent food. He continues his essay by defending the reasons why it is an excellent solution to poverty, as many poor people have extra children that they could use to feed mouths, rather than as mouths to feed. Obviously, these ideas are over-the-top and outrageous; which is precisely the point of the essay. It mocks a very serious issue; which highlights its importance and begs for change in society.
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Catharsis
আবেগ নির্গম
Catharsis, meaning “cleansing” in Greek, refers to a literary theory first developed by the philosopher Aristotle, who believed that cleansing our emotions was the purpose of a good story, especially a tragedy. Catharsis applies to any form of art or media that makes us feel strong negative emotions, but that we are nonetheless drawn to – we may seek out art that creates these emotions because the experience purges the emotions from our system. We can feel something intense, then walk out of the theater feeling better afterwards. Catharsis is roughly synonymous with the idea of “blowing off steam.”
Aristotle was perhaps the greatest philosopher of the ancient world, and he was curious about everything – biology, physics, politics, ethics, literature, etc. This powerful thinker raised many insightful questions and tried to answer them through philosophy. One question that particularly vexed Aristotle was: why do we enjoy watching or reading tragedies? Why do we enjoy stories that make us sad?
It’s important to remember that ancient Greek culture had real tragedies, which modern culture generally doesn’t. Hollywood seems to be addicted to happy endings, which means almost none of our popular stories are really “tragic” in the true sense. After all, a real tragedy is one in which the hero is ultimately destroyed and there is no happy ending to be found. So when Aristotle pondered the question of tragedy, he was wondering why so many people in his society preferred stories that had unhappy endings.
His theory, as we’ve seen, was that such stories are cathartic. We feel such tremendous sympathy for the hero, such rage at the villain, such sorrow at the tragic ending, that we can then walk out of the theater and back into our own lives with less “baggage,” – less pent-up emotion threatening to boil over.
Example 1
Romeo and Juliet is a great example of a tragedy, and its popularity might be explained by the idea of catharsis. In the end, the young lovers end up dead because they made the mistake of following their childish passions instead of being rational and patient. (It was intended as a cautionary tale, not a celebration of romantic love!) As an audience, we feel sympathy and pity for Romeo and Juliet, but we may also feel some relief at the end due to the effects of catharsis.
Example 2
In Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe takes the structure of a classical tragedy and applies it to African culture. He tells the story of a powerful village leader whose arrogance drives away his supporters. He is ultimately brought so low that he kills himself. Catharsis, along with Achebe’s skill as a writer, may help to explain why this story is so popular.
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Cliffhanger
অসমাপ্ত সমাপ্তি
A cliffhanger is when a story or plotline ends suddenly or a large plot twist occurs and is left unresolved. It is a device that is used to cause suspense, but most importantly, it leaves unanswered questions that make the reader or viewer want to come back to learn what will happen. The phrase comes from the idea of “hanging off a cliff”—whatever happens will determine the character’s future and the story’s plot, leaving audiences “on the edge” of knowing. Cliffhangers are a particularly popular and widely used device in television, whose success relies heavily on audiences returning to watch week after week with episodes that are “to be continued.”
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Comic Relief
চকিত হাস্যরস
Even in an intense, dramatic movie, you can find moments of humor. Maybe a character is facing an impossible epic quest, but makes witty comments to lighten the mood. Or maybe two characters are suffering through a difficult divorce, but one of them cracks a joke to cut the tension. It’s just like in real life – we often make jokes to ease the burden of difficult circumstances. In storytelling, this is called comic relief.
It’s important to remember the relief part of comic relief. In a funny movie, for example, there’s no need for comic relief – there’s just regular comedy. Comic relief is when the comedy takes place in a story that’s dramatic, tragic, or serious overall, not comedies.
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Diacope
বাগাবর্ত
Diacope is when a writer repeats a word or phrase with one or more words in between. A common and persistent example of diacope is Hamlet’s:
To be, or not to be!
Here, the phrase “to be” is repeated, but separated by the phrase “or not.” The phrase diacope is derived from the Greek word diakopē, meaning “to cut into two.”
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Dramatic irony
নাটকীয় বক্রাঘাত
Irony is when you get the opposite of what you expect, especially if the result is humorous or striking in some way. Dramatic irony, however, is slightly different: it’s when the audience knows something the characters don’t — so the characters might get an unexpected outcome, but for the audience it’s not unexpected at all.
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Elegy
শোকগাথা
An elegy (pronounced ELL-eh-jee) is a poem of mourning. Written in a somber style, it reflects seriously on death and on the person who has passed. Elegies are written for a specific person, usually someone the author knew well, although sometimes people write elegies for long-dead heroes. The emotional effect is usually greatest, however, when the elegy is written from a personal experience of loss.
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Encomium / Eulogy
প্রশস্তি; প্রশংসাগীতি
Encomium comes from a Latin word meaning “to celebrate.” It’s a speech, poem, or other text written in praise of a specific person or thing. Encomia are usually written in very elevated language and praise their object in very strong terms. There are many synonyms for encomium: panegyric and paean are especially common ones.
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Epistrophe
পুনরাবর্ত
Epistrophe (pronounced ih-pis-truh-fee) is when a certain phrase or word is repeated at the end of sentences or clauses that follow each other. This repetition creates a rhythm while emphasizing the repeated phrase. Epistrophe is also known as epiphora and antistrophe.
Epistrophe is important in both everyday conversation and more formal speeches. Epistrophe is a simple but effective way of emphasizing a certain idea and is used often by speechmakers for this reason. It emphasizes certain ideas, arousing emotion in listeners and readers more than a simple sentence would otherwise. Because epistrophe also adds rhythm to a passage, it creates a more enjoyable and memorable phrase.
Examples:
1. Last week, he was just fine. Yesterday, he was just fine. And today, he was just fine.
2. I’m tired of this job. I’m over this job. I’m done with this job!
3. The award for best hair went to Josh. The award for most likely to succeed went to Josh. And the award for most charming? It went to Josh!
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Very essential information for both ELT teachers & students! :)
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Interesting to read.