1
English / Re: Defining Documentary Linguistics
« on: January 23, 2016, 02:42:02 PM »
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2
English / Re: Defining Documentary Linguistics
« on: December 10, 2015, 06:57:14 PM »
4.2.1 Social diversity
Related to this is a focus on diversity in a slightly different sense — the focus by
sociolinguists on social diversity, and on the ways ideology about language and linguistic
practice constitute and embody peoples’ sense of their social, ethnic, personal, and even
spiritual identity. It is perhaps this aspect of ‘linguistic diversity’ that is most directly
relevant to contemporary social and political concerns about diversity within US society,
and diversity as a value affected by globalization and other homogenizing tendencies.
4.2.2 Neo-Whorfian concerns
In a related way, it is increasingly asserted — among linguistic anthropologists (Lucy 1992,
Gumperz and Levinson 1996) and in society more widely — that linguistic diversity has
humanistic value, and that it is critical to intellectual, literary, and aesthetic creativity.
These questions might be called neo-Whorfian although their roots go much farther back.
To the extent this is the case, the study of linguistic diversity — diversity of linguistic
codes as well as of the uses and potentialities of those codes — becomes important.
Related to this is a focus on diversity in a slightly different sense — the focus by
sociolinguists on social diversity, and on the ways ideology about language and linguistic
practice constitute and embody peoples’ sense of their social, ethnic, personal, and even
spiritual identity. It is perhaps this aspect of ‘linguistic diversity’ that is most directly
relevant to contemporary social and political concerns about diversity within US society,
and diversity as a value affected by globalization and other homogenizing tendencies.
4.2.2 Neo-Whorfian concerns
In a related way, it is increasingly asserted — among linguistic anthropologists (Lucy 1992,
Gumperz and Levinson 1996) and in society more widely — that linguistic diversity has
humanistic value, and that it is critical to intellectual, literary, and aesthetic creativity.
These questions might be called neo-Whorfian although their roots go much farther back.
To the extent this is the case, the study of linguistic diversity — diversity of linguistic
codes as well as of the uses and potentialities of those codes — becomes important.
3
English / Re: Defining Documentary Linguistics
« on: December 09, 2015, 07:31:55 PM »
3. But a new conception has been emerging
Nevertheless, these antecedent areas of concern have become aligned and focused in a
fundamentally new way in a very short time—perhaps as short as a decade—into a field
that has come to be known as documentary linguistics.
4. Elements of the shift
Perhaps it’s best to start by looking at what has been happening around the emergence of a
documentary linguistics. What new things have become possible? What ideas have been
“in the air”? What is the value of linguistic documentation? To whom? And what do they
want from it? In short, what changes in the general scene surrounding linguistic
documentation in the last decade and a half have set the stage for its reconceptualization?
4.1 Technology
Let’s start with technology because it, more than anything, has changed our thinking about
the physical possibilities for linguistic documentation. Suddenly, with powerful laptops,
digital audio, video, and the worldwide web, it at least seems that we should be able to
capture and store enormous amounts of information; we should be able to search through
this information with unprecedented speed and precision; we should be able to link
transcriptions with audio- and videotapes, and entries and dictionaries or statements in
grammars with large databases of illustrative examples; we should be able to disseminate
around the globe the material now collecting dust in attics or rotting in basements; and we
should be able to keep huge amounts of information safe in perpetuity. While reality has
turned out to be more complex—it’s clear we need to agree on and coordinate our practices
before this can happen—this revolution in both the magnitude and the quality of linguistic
documentation has brought about permanent changes in what people plan and hope for.
4.2 Diversity
A second change in the general scene surrounding documentation is an increasing
emphasis on diversity as a central, organizing question in linguistics. To be sure, the study
of universal grammar has also shed light on the ways languages can differ, but
assomething of a side issue. More recently, work on universal grammar has taken increasing
responsibility for charting and explaining typological patterns; Bruce Hayes’ (1995) book
Metrical stress theory would be just one nice example; the work of Paul Hopper and others
on functional relationships among grammatical categories would be another (Hopper and
Thompson 1980). More radically still, work such as Johanna Nichols’ (1992) book
Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time has placed diversity on center stage by asking how
typological and genetic diversity can be measured, how it can be that world regions differ
markedly in the amount of diversity they show, how areal influence, genetic relatedness,
and universal grammar all affect patterns of linguistic difference, and how different
geographic, social, and population patterns affect linguistic diversity. Naturally, all such
theorizing calls for documentation of the world’s languages.
Tony Woodbury
Nevertheless, these antecedent areas of concern have become aligned and focused in a
fundamentally new way in a very short time—perhaps as short as a decade—into a field
that has come to be known as documentary linguistics.
4. Elements of the shift
Perhaps it’s best to start by looking at what has been happening around the emergence of a
documentary linguistics. What new things have become possible? What ideas have been
“in the air”? What is the value of linguistic documentation? To whom? And what do they
want from it? In short, what changes in the general scene surrounding linguistic
documentation in the last decade and a half have set the stage for its reconceptualization?
4.1 Technology
Let’s start with technology because it, more than anything, has changed our thinking about
the physical possibilities for linguistic documentation. Suddenly, with powerful laptops,
digital audio, video, and the worldwide web, it at least seems that we should be able to
capture and store enormous amounts of information; we should be able to search through
this information with unprecedented speed and precision; we should be able to link
transcriptions with audio- and videotapes, and entries and dictionaries or statements in
grammars with large databases of illustrative examples; we should be able to disseminate
around the globe the material now collecting dust in attics or rotting in basements; and we
should be able to keep huge amounts of information safe in perpetuity. While reality has
turned out to be more complex—it’s clear we need to agree on and coordinate our practices
before this can happen—this revolution in both the magnitude and the quality of linguistic
documentation has brought about permanent changes in what people plan and hope for.
4.2 Diversity
A second change in the general scene surrounding documentation is an increasing
emphasis on diversity as a central, organizing question in linguistics. To be sure, the study
of universal grammar has also shed light on the ways languages can differ, but
assomething of a side issue. More recently, work on universal grammar has taken increasing
responsibility for charting and explaining typological patterns; Bruce Hayes’ (1995) book
Metrical stress theory would be just one nice example; the work of Paul Hopper and others
on functional relationships among grammatical categories would be another (Hopper and
Thompson 1980). More radically still, work such as Johanna Nichols’ (1992) book
Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time has placed diversity on center stage by asking how
typological and genetic diversity can be measured, how it can be that world regions differ
markedly in the amount of diversity they show, how areal influence, genetic relatedness,
and universal grammar all affect patterns of linguistic difference, and how different
geographic, social, and population patterns affect linguistic diversity. Naturally, all such
theorizing calls for documentation of the world’s languages.
Tony Woodbury
4
English / Re: Defining Documentary Linguistics
« on: December 08, 2015, 06:03:09 PM »
2. Documentation is old
Of course there has long been concern for the perspicuous documentation and description
of the world’s languages. We see this in the now century-old tradition of monograph series
and journals of record in which texts, dictionaries, grammars, vocabularies, and other
works have been published.
We can see too that such work has been foundational for the discipline’s more
theoretical endeavors since at least the time of Franz Boas. Dictionaries, grammars, and
texts have informed historical linguistics and the reconstruction of linguistic prehistory, of
genetic language families, and of patterns of prehistoric linguistic contact. They have
informed inquiry into the methods and tools for linguistic description and discovery. And
they have informed the development and testing of theories of linguistic typology and of
universal grammar.
Documentation and description have been foundational too in having kept
linguists in the field, observing language in its social context, and through that it has led
directly to work on the use and function of language in specific speech communities.
Finally, practitioners of documentary and descriptive linguistics have always
operated in an atmosphere of urgency and impending language loss, making lasting records
and in some cases taking part in community efforts at language preservation, teaching,
planning, and revival.
(Tony Woodbury)
Of course there has long been concern for the perspicuous documentation and description
of the world’s languages. We see this in the now century-old tradition of monograph series
and journals of record in which texts, dictionaries, grammars, vocabularies, and other
works have been published.
We can see too that such work has been foundational for the discipline’s more
theoretical endeavors since at least the time of Franz Boas. Dictionaries, grammars, and
texts have informed historical linguistics and the reconstruction of linguistic prehistory, of
genetic language families, and of patterns of prehistoric linguistic contact. They have
informed inquiry into the methods and tools for linguistic description and discovery. And
they have informed the development and testing of theories of linguistic typology and of
universal grammar.
Documentation and description have been foundational too in having kept
linguists in the field, observing language in its social context, and through that it has led
directly to work on the use and function of language in specific speech communities.
Finally, practitioners of documentary and descriptive linguistics have always
operated in an atmosphere of urgency and impending language loss, making lasting records
and in some cases taking part in community efforts at language preservation, teaching,
planning, and revival.
(Tony Woodbury)
6
English / Defining Documentary Linguistics
« on: December 07, 2015, 08:12:59 PM »
Defining Documentary Linguistics
1. Preamble
In the last fifteen years, we have seen the emergence of a branch of linguistics which has
come to be called Documentary Linguistics. It is concerned with the making and keeping
of records of the world’s languages and their patterns of use. This emergence has taken
place alongside major changes in the technology of linguistic data representation and
maintenance; alongside new attention to linguistic diversity; alongside an increasing focus
on the threats to that diversity by the endangerment of languages and language practices
around the world, especially in small indigenous communities; and perhaps most
importantly of all, alongside the discipline’s growing awareness that linguistic
documentation has crucial stakeholders well beyond the academic community; in
endangered language communities themselves, but also beyond.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss documentary linguistics, how it has been
emerging, and where it may be headed.
(Tony Woodbury)
1. Preamble
In the last fifteen years, we have seen the emergence of a branch of linguistics which has
come to be called Documentary Linguistics. It is concerned with the making and keeping
of records of the world’s languages and their patterns of use. This emergence has taken
place alongside major changes in the technology of linguistic data representation and
maintenance; alongside new attention to linguistic diversity; alongside an increasing focus
on the threats to that diversity by the endangerment of languages and language practices
around the world, especially in small indigenous communities; and perhaps most
importantly of all, alongside the discipline’s growing awareness that linguistic
documentation has crucial stakeholders well beyond the academic community; in
endangered language communities themselves, but also beyond.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss documentary linguistics, how it has been
emerging, and where it may be headed.
(Tony Woodbury)
7
English / Re: Resources for language classes
« on: December 04, 2015, 12:15:13 AM »
well done Tine
8
English / Re: Forensic Linguistics
« on: October 20, 2015, 08:02:42 PM »
You are most welcome Tina. Linguistics has lots of interesting branches.
9
English / Re: Corpus Linguistics
« on: October 19, 2015, 12:06:31 PM »
Thanks for your fascination Tina. I will provide more information about it. Please wait........
10
English / Forensic Linguistics
« on: October 19, 2015, 12:04:42 PM »Forensic Linguistics
Forensic linguistics is the scientific study of language as applied to forensic purposes and contexts. It is a very new area of linguistics vis-à-vis its 2400-year history and is a recent and rapidly growing area of modern applied linguistics. Linguists who did much of the ground-breaking work in forensic linguistics are often heard to say that what they do is linguistics that happens to be in a forensic context, and that a forensic linguist must first be a good linguist. Such observations are not meant to minimize the task of learning how to function within the judicial system, but they do signal the primary importance of the connection forensic linguistics has as a discipline to the
scientific theories and methods developed over time within general and applied linguistics. The purpose of this chapter is to trace the foundations of forensic linguistics and to outline specific areas of current research and practice within the field.
Early work on language and the law is significant. One of the first and most interesting works is Bryant’s (1930) compendium on function words in legal language. The work of Wetter (1960) on the style of written appellate decisions elaborates an early discussion of writing style in a legal context and presents many example opinions. Melinkoff (1963) began his influential plain language campaign, which was carried on by him and others through the next three decades. The relatively early article by Danet (1980) on the language of fact-oriented disputes is formidable for its breadth, depth, and attention to topics (e.g., pragmatics) that were not seriously studied until much later. Levi (1982) prepared the first comprehensive bibliography in the field. Systematic study of courtroom language was begun by O’Barr (1982) and his colleagues, and linguistic applications, especially in the areas of discourse and pragmatics, were developed by Shuy (1984, 1986). Robin Lakoff ’s earlier courses and lectures on language and the law are also significant, especially her observations about courtroom language, i.e., the formality of the courtroom, and the nonreciprocity and public nature of courtroom discourse (Lakoff, 1990, Chapters 5 and 6).
More recent research demonstrates a rapid, large-scale surge of interest and basic scientific work in forensic linguistics. Overviews of language, law, and the legal process have been done by Gibbons (1990), Kniffka (1990), Tiersma (1993), Eades (1994), Levi (1994b), Murphy, (1998) and Butters(2001). O’Barr has continued work on the language of the courtroom (Conley and O’Barr, 1998), and Shuy on analysis of discourse in the language used in legal settings (Shuy, 1993, 1998). Specific studies and collections relating to various linguistic applications to the law have been written or edited by Levi and Walker (1990), Rieber and Stewart (1990), Gibbons (1994), Eades (1995), and Kniffka et al. (1996). In addition, Levi (1994a) has expanded her bibliographic work by continuing to identify and document advances in forensic linguistics.
A complete compilation of all the milestones and international developments in forensic linguistics is not within the reach of this chapter, but some of the most important will be identified. Levi and Walker organized and coordinated the 1985 Georgetown University conference on language in the judicial process and published their eponymous volume of work on language and law (Levi and Walker, 1990). In 1995 Dumas started Language in the Judicial Process, an electronic newsletter aimed at disseminating information on bibliography, rganizations, courses and programs, and legal cases. During and after this time, courses were developed and presented around
the world. For example, Dumas’ course on language and law at the University of Tennessee focused on legal language, interpretation, courtroom language, plain English, pragmatics, jury instructions, language in legal settings and proceedings, and the language of consumer product warnings. Similar courses have been developed at various universities such as University of Wales (Bangor), University of Birmingham, Cambridge University, University of New South Wales, University of Melbourne, Georgetown University, Montclair State, University of California (San Diego), San Diego State, California State University (Fresno), and many others. Perhaps the single most effective advance in the study of forensic linguistics during the past decade was the 1994 initiation at the University of Birmingham of Forensic Linguistics: The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law , and the founding of the International Association of
Forensic Linguistics. This journal, edited by Malcolm Coulthard and Peter French, and the IAFL (website in reference section) have since provided serious venues for the presentation of research that is more regular, unified, and formal than ever before.
The above-cited works demonstrate that forensic linguistics is a well established area of applied linguistics. However, when a field such as forensic linguistics goes through the process of defining itself, there are certain to be instances of ambiguity related to what is or is not part of the discipline.
Psycholinguistics has been represented (in Section 4.4.1) as an example of an effort considered misnamed and best left to another specialty. The psycholinguistics practiced in American forensic contexts contrasts to the field of psycholinguistics (as studied in linguistics and psychology) in much the same way astrology does to astronomy, i.e., both astrology and “psycholinguistics” are
interesting and may be useful, but are of questionable scientific consequence.
Another type of ambiguity is created when a single area of forensic linguistics is defined as the field itself. For example, the entry on forensic linguistics in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Crystal, 1987:69) includes only a discussion of stylistics. A later entry called “(forensic) stylometry” in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (Crystal,1995:423) claims that “this application [of stylometry] has generated yet another name for the subject: forensic linguistics.” The field cannot be accurately understood when defined by synecdochic descriptions of this type.
The description of forensic linguistics that follows categorizes areas within the field and cites related bibliographies. While differences in categorization paradigms are to be expected (e.g., compare that on the bibliography website of the University of Birmingham), it is not possible to avoid overlap in the multifaceted research areas of forensic linguistics. In addition, the scope of this chapter does not allow exhaustive bibliographic citation. Instead, every effort has been made to include representative works in every category of
forensic linguistic study and application. Note also that a list of selected electronic sources for forensic linguistics is included in the reference section.
(GERALD R. McMENAMIN)
11
English / Corpus Linguistics
« on: October 12, 2015, 04:36:33 PM »
Corpus linguistics, broadly, is a collection of methods for studying
language. It begins with collecting a large set of language data - a
corpus - which is made usable by computers. Corpora (the plural of
corpus) are usually so large that it would be impossible to analyse them
by hand, so software packages (often called concordancers) are used
in order to study them. It is also important that a corpus is built using
data well matched to a research question it is built to investigate. To
investigate language use in an academic context, for example, it would
be appropriate for one to collect data from academic contexts such as
academic journals or lectures. Collecting data from the sports pages of
a tabloid newspaper would make much less sense.
language. It begins with collecting a large set of language data - a
corpus - which is made usable by computers. Corpora (the plural of
corpus) are usually so large that it would be impossible to analyse them
by hand, so software packages (often called concordancers) are used
in order to study them. It is also important that a corpus is built using
data well matched to a research question it is built to investigate. To
investigate language use in an academic context, for example, it would
be appropriate for one to collect data from academic contexts such as
academic journals or lectures. Collecting data from the sports pages of
a tabloid newspaper would make much less sense.
13
English / Re: The world's population has reached 'peak youth'. This should be a wake-up call t
« on: August 19, 2015, 03:23:54 PM »
This is a very good observation.
14
English / Re: Beautiful story!!! ♥♥
« on: January 11, 2015, 12:41:37 PM »
Interesting Story...........